ТЕМА 23. МУНТЯН. КОНФЛИКТЫ

- The source (subject) of the conflict expressing a being of disagreements between participants of dispute;

- An occasion characterising concrete events which have served as the beginning of active actions of the parties on upholding of the interests, the purposes, positions in relations with the competitor;

- The parties of the conflict meaning number of subjects, directly and indirectly participating in struggle for imperious statuses and resources in policy sphere;

- Perception and the positions of subjects opening them of the purpose in competitive interaction, the relation to counterparts, perception of the conflict and other subjective characteristics of behaviour of the parties;

- The means of the conflict characterising typical resources applied by the parties, ways, receptions in interaction with each other;

- The character of the conflict opening the most typical relations of the competing parties, rigidity or plasticity of positions occupied with them, ability to updating of a subject of dispute, involving of intermediaries etc.

More often allocate four principal causes of occurrence of political conflicts:

Discrepancy of statuses of subjects of a policy, their role appointments and functions;

Collision of interests and requirements for the power;

Lack of resources;

Divergences of people (their groups and associations) concerning values and political ideals, the cultural traditions, those estimations or other events.

II. Tipologizatsija of conflicts. In the general view in a political science it is accepted to classify conflicts as follows:

- c the points of view of zones and areas of their display allocate foreign policy and internal political conflicts;

- On degree and character of standard regulation conflicts are divided on институциализированные and неинституциализированные, characterising ability or inability of people (institutes) to submit to operating rules of a game of politics;

- Under qualitative characteristics of conflicts are allocated:

"Deeply" and "superficially implanted" in consciousness of people disputes and contradictions;

Conflicts “with the zero sum” when positions of the parties are opposite and consequently the victory of one of them turns around defeat another;

Conflicts “with the nonzero sum in which there is at least one way of a finding of the consent”;

Conflicts “with the negative sum” in which all participants appear in loss;

The antagonistic and nonantagonistic conflicts (K.Marx), which permission contacts destruction of one of the contradictory parties or accordingly preservation of contradictory subjects.

- On intensity degree it is accepted to allocate эскалированные and conflicts of low intensity;

- From the point of view of publicity of a competition of the parties it makes sense to speak about the open and closed conflicts;

- Under time characteristics of competitive interaction of the parties long-term and short-term conflicts are divided;

- In view of a structure and the organisation of a mode of the power, allocate conflicts vertical (conflicts between the central and local elite, federal authority and local government bodies) and horizontal (in ruling elite, between not parties in power, members of one political association).

Many конфликтологи hold the opinion that three basic types of conflicts differ:

- Conflicts of interests prevail in economically developed countries, the steady states where the political norm considers "auction" concerning a sharing of economic "pie"; this type of the conflict most easily gives in to regulation as here always it is possible to find the conciliatory proposal;

- Conflicts of values which are characteristic for the developing states with an unstable political system; they demand more efforts on settlement, as the compromise concerning such values, as freedom, equality, justice труднодостижим if at all it is possible;

- Identity conflicts, characteristic for societies in which there is an identification the subject of to certain group (ethnic, religious, language), instead of with a society and the state as a whole; this type of conflicts arises in the conditions of opposition of races, ethnic or language contrast.

III. The Basic strategy of management by conflicts. As the most significant strategy in which frameworks own technologies on conscious influence on the conflict are formed, it is possible to allocate following purposes characterising them:

- инициация the conflict, meaning a permanent aggravation of contradictions available in a society, strengthening of escalation of conflicts and preservation of sharply competitive relations for the purpose of generation of a situation which would be fashionable for using more effectively, than the opponent can make it;

- рутинизация the conflict, meaning conscious maintenance of the arisen intensity in relations of the parties on purpose to use it in own interests;

- The prevention of the conflict aimed at a non-admission of transition of contradictions in an open phase of an antagonism and increase of a political tension;

- The settlement of the conflict focused on full or partial removal of a sharpness of an antagonism of the parties, and also on avoiding the most negative consequences for itself, the state, a society as a whole;

- The resolution of conflict providing or elimination of the reasons of the conflict, exhaustion of the subject of dispute, or such change of a situation and circumstances which would generate frictionless relations of the parties, has excluded danger of relapse of disagreements, has removed probability of a new aggravation of already settled relations;

- The replacement of the conflict assuming transferring of responsibility for various ways of end of the conflict on other level of political system (for example, with federal on regional or on the contrary).

Political practice and the theory develops some general forms and ways of prevention, regulation and a resolution of conflicts. Among them the most known - the compromise and a consensus. The compromise in dictionaries political terms is defined as the agreement on the basis of reciprocal concessions. Distinguish compromises compelled and voluntary. The first with inevitability are imposed by the developed circumstances. The second consist on the basis of agreements on certain questions and correspond to any part of political interests of all co-operating forces. Concept of a consensus (from an armour. consentio - the generality of feelings and thoughts, mutual understanding) means the agreement of the considerable majority of people of any community rather most prominent aspects of its social usages, expressed in actions. In democratic systems usually distinguish three objects of the possible agreement:

- Ultimate goals (freedom, equality, justice etc.) which make structure of system of representations;

- Game, procedures corrected;

- The concrete governments and a state policy.

These three objects can be transformed to three levels of a consensus:

Consensus at level of community or the basic, valuable;

Consensus at level of a mode or procedural;

Consensus at policy level.

The political science allocates the foreign policy crises caused by the international conflicts and contradictions, and internal political crises (governmental, parliamentary, constitutional, etc.).

The governmental crisis - especially frequent phenomenon, is expressed in loss by the authority cabinet, in default of its orders by executive powers. If the government does not cope with a situation the parliament can refuse to it trust and poison resignation.

Parliamentary crisis is a change of a parity of forces in regulatory authorities when parliament decisions disperse from will of the majority of citizens of the country. Dissolution of parliament and appointment of new elections can become result. Parliamentary crisis can arise and in that case when the basic contradictory fractions approximately are equal in it on force and it disturbs to decision-making, will paralyse work of legislators.

The constitutional crisis is connected with actual cancellation of the Organic law of the country. The former constitution loses legitimacy and its qualitative revision is required.

Political crisis as that is characterised делегитимизацией power structures, absence of interaction between the various centres of the power, blocking of one centre by another, decrease in efficiency of sociopolitical regulation and control, escalation of spontaneous forms of the political protest (meetings, strikes, demonstrations, etc.).

Depending on features of display and the reasons of occurrence of political crisis in political science allocate its such forms, as:

The occurrence of crisis meaning inability of the government to solve a problem facing a society by political methods, characteristic for normal functioning of political system;

Development and the aggravation of crisis expressed in disintegration of existing political structures, in anarchy or multiple authority occurrence.

The crisis aggravation can become the beginning of its permission consisting in elimination of a conflict situation, and also its further development, increase of possibility of a political disaster. The personal computer usually is derivative of contradictions and conflicts in a society, not removed owing to the various reasons usual means of political management of a society. Such contradictions can be divided on functional, structural and system.

System contradictions mean that society basic elements have come to such mutual discrepancy that it cannot be overcome within the limits of existing political system. They разрешимы only during its change - a revolutionary or nonviolent way. Usually at a stage of system crisis there is a revolutionary situation, full loss by the power of the legitimacy is available. Struggle is entered by new subjects of political process.

The general condition of an exit from political crisis is availability of system to criticism from a society, its openness to information sources, flexibility, mobility of system, its ability to change with reference to new calls of world development.

Мунтян. Конфликты. ТЕМА 23. Перевод.

ПОЛИТИЧЕСКИЕ КОНФЛИКТЫ И КРИЗИСЫ

Люди поразительно недоверчивы друг к другу, все время ожидают нападения, отсюда их чудовищная агрессивность.

Ю.М. Нагибин

I. Политические конфликты и их типологии. Политический конфликт представляет собой один из возможных вариантов взаимодействия политических субъектов. Он может быть определен как разновидность (и результат) конкурентного взаимодействия двух и более сторон (групп, государств, индивидов), оспаривающих друг у друга властные полномочия или ресурсы. Понятие политического конфликта обозначает борьбу одних субъектов с другими за влияние в системе политических отношений, доступ к принятию общезначимых решений, распоряжение ресурсами, монополию интересов и признание их общественно необходимыми, за все то, что составляет власть и политическое господство. Один из основоположников современной конфликтологии Л. Козер определял политический конфликт как “борьбу за ценности и претензии на определенный социальный статус, власть и недостаточные для всех материальные и духовные блага; борьбу, в которой целями состоящих в конфликте сторон является нейтрализация, нанесение ущерба или уничтожение соперника”.

- кризис идентичности, возникающий тогда, когда этнические и социально-структурные различия становятся преградой на пути общенационального объединения и идентификации с определенной политической системой;

- кризис политического участия, характеризующийся созданием правящей элитой искусственных препятствий включению в активную политическую жизнь групп, заявляющих о своих претензиях на власть, а также обострением проблемы сохранения территориальной целостности. национального единства и стабильности политической системы в условиях быстрого роста политического участия групп с противоречивыми интересами;

- кризис проникновения, проявляющийся в снижении способности государственного управления проводить свои решения в различных областях общественной жизни. Его возникновение обычно связано с расхождением между реальной политикой и провозглашенными правительственными целями;

- кризис распределения, который означает неспособность правящей элиты обеспечить приемлемый для общества рост материального благосостояния и его распределение, позволяющих избежать чрезмерной социальной дифференциации и гарантирующих доступность основных материальных благ всем слоям населения.

V. Политический кризис в своем развитии проходит ряд этапов:

а) предкризисное состояние общества или его политической системы, когда социальные противоречия уже не могут быть разрешены путем компромиссов;