The identity of unit problem (Проблема тождества слова).

When one word ends the other begins? It’s a problem in English.

The nature of the English is one more problem which complicates the matter:

1) English is an analytical language

2) words are invariable and syntactic relations between them are shown by word order

3) English tends to bring its units into complex. F.e.: merry-go-round; sit-by-the-fire; no-nothing; forget-me-not.

Examples:

1) strict compounds.

Hyphen – дефис.

Let sleeping dog lie – 4 words. Let-sleeping-dog-lie – 1 word.

2) loose compounds. F.e.: blue bottle; speech sound.

Different scholars treat this problem differently:

- Some scholars treat the first component as an adjective formed from the noun. In this case the whole complex is a word combination “adjective + noun”. F.e. stone wall.

- The first component is a noun. It means that the whole complex is a compound word because there is such a rule in English that two nouns in common case are always connected by a preposition or conjunction. This problem hasn’t yet been solved. It is “the stone wall” problem.

Scholars try to work out different criteria to solve the problem:

- If it is possible to add to this complex the word “very”, it is a word combination. If it is not, it is a word. But this criteria doesn’t always work (f.e. black market).

- If it is possible to transform this complex into an of-phrase or a phrase with another preposition, it is a compound word. F.e. stone wall – a wall of stone; armchair – a chair with arms. But this criteria doesn’t always work (f.e. toothpick – a pick for tooth – it is impossible).

- If this complex is pronounced with one stress, it is a word (‘blue bottle, ‘blackboard), If each component is stressed, it is a word combination (‘black ‘board). But this criteria doesn’t always work. Compound adjectives in English have two stresses, but they are words, not word combinations (‘blue-‘eyed).

- Nomination criterion. If two elements of this complex express a single notion, they become a word.

3) cases of phonetic, morphological and lexical variation

3.1 phonetic variation – can be accentual (разница в ударении)

3.2 morphological variation takes place when different derivational morphemes are used. F.e. academic – academical, morphologic – morphological; but historic – historical, economic – economical.

3.3 lexical variation – appears as the result of different styles, formal and informal, spoken and written. F.e. examination – exam, laboratory – lab.

Language as a system of signs.

Saussure was the first who spoke about Language as a system of signs.

Sapir: language is a purely human and non instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of a system of symbols.

Saussure also proposed the necessity of a special science that would study the life of signs within society. Saussure called this science semiology. Semiology is a very general science and linguistics is only part of it.

The science really appeared in the beginning of the 20^th century and it was called semiotics. The founders of the science are considered to be Charles Pierce and Charles Morris.

Semiotics is a science which studies signs, sign phenomena and sign using behavior.

The scheme of linguistic communication (The transmitter – receiver circuit):

The process of communication is the exchange of linguistic signs. The linguistic sign units a concept and sound image.

The scheme of linguistic sign:

Trends in semiotics:

1) lingua semiotics – studies both natural and artificial languages

2) ethno semiotics – studies sign using behavior of people in connection with their culture

3) bio semiotics – studies signs produced by humans and animals

4) art semiotics – studies how different massages can be conveyed with the help of signs in art (ballet, music)

5) computer semiotics