Photo credits 1 страница

CHAPTER 1: Carl Karcher holding his daughter Anne Marie beside his first hot dog stand, 1942. Courtesy of CKE, Inc.

CHAPTER 9: Alex Donley. Courtesy of Nancy Donley.

Notes

Introduction

Although I did a great deal of firsthand reporting and research for this book, I also benefited from the hard work of others. In these notes I’ve tried to give credit to the many people whose writing and research helped mine. Robert L. Emerson’s The New Economics of Fast Food (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1990) offers a fine overview of the business. Though many of its statistics are out of date, the book’s analysis of relative labor, marketing, and franchising costs remains useful. Fast Food: Roadside Restaurants in the Automobile Age , by John A. Jakle and Keith A. Sculle (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1999), is less concerned with the workings of the industry than with its impact on the American landscape and “sense of place.” McDonald’s has played a central role in the creation of this industry, and half a dozen books about the company provide a broad perspective of its impact on the world. Ray Kroc’s memoir with Robert Anderson, Grinding It Out: The Making of McDonald’s (New York: St. Martin’s Paperbacks, 1987) conveys the sensibility of its charismatic founder, an outlook that still pervades the chain. John F. Love’s McDonald’s: Behind the Arches (New York: Bantam Books, 1995) is an authorized corporate history, but an unusual one – fascinating, thoughtful, sometimes critical, and extremely well researched. Big Mac: The Unauthorized Story of McDonald’s (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1976), by Max Boas and Steve Chain, looks behind the McDonald’s PR machine and finds a company whose behavior is frequently cynical and manipulative. John Vidal’s McLibel: Burger Culture on Trial (New York: New Press, 1997) uses a narrative of the McLibel case to provide an indictment of McDonald’s and globalization. George Ritzer’s The McDonaldization of Society: An Investigation into the Changing Character of Contemporary Social Life (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Pine Ridge Press, 1996) applies the theories of Max Weber to contemporary America, tracing the wide‑ranging effects of McDonald’s zeal for efficiency and uniformity. McDonaldization Revisited: Critical Essays on Consumer Culture (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1998), edited by Mark Alfino, John S. Caputo, and Robin Winyard, attests to the current influence of Ritzer’s work in the field of sociology. With a much less theoretical emphasis, Stan Luxenberg’s Roadside Empires: How the Chains Franchised America (New York: Viking, 1985) examines the fast food industry’s role in helping to create America’s postwar service economy. I found a great deal of interesting material in trade publications such as Restaurant Business, Restaurants and Institutions, Nation’s Restaurant News, and ID: The Voice of Foodservice . For years some of the best reporting on the fast food industry has appeared in the Wall Street Journal .

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1 Cheyenne Mountain sits: The description of Cheyenne Mountain Air Force Station is based upon my visit to the facility, and I am grateful to Major Mike Birmingham of the U.S. Space Command for his subsequent help in obtaining additional information.

3 about $6 billion on fast food… more than $110 billion: Both of these estimates were provided by the National Restaurant Association.

more money on fast food than on higher education : My calculation is based on figures contained in “Personal Consumption Expenditures in Millions of Current Dollars,” U.S. Commerce Department, 2000. According to the Commerce Department, 1999 consumer spending on fast food exceeded spending on higher education ($75.6 billion); personal computers and peripherals ($25.9 billion); computer software ($8.4 billion); new cars ($101 billion); movies ($6.7 billion); books and maps ($29.5 billion); magazines and sheet music ($19 billion); newspapers ($16.7 billion); video rentals ($8.6 billion); and records, tapes, and disks ($12.2 billion).

about one‑quarter of the adult population : This is my own estimate, based on the following information from the National Restaurant Association: about half of the adult population visits a restaurant on any given day, and more than half of the restaurant industry’s annual revenues now come from fast food. Since the average check at a fast food restaurant is much lower that that at a full‑service restaurant, my estimate may be too conservative (and the actual number of daily fast food visits may be higher).

4 the hourly wage of the average U.S. worker: By “average” I mean workers assigned to nonsupervisory tasks. See “Real Average Weekly and Hourly Earnings of Production and Non‑Supervisory Workers, 1967–98 (1998 Dollars),” Economic Policy Institute, 1999; “Average Hourly and Weekly Earnings by Private Industry Group, 1980–1998,” Statistical Abstract of the United States (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Census Bureau, 1999), p. 443.

about one‑third of American mothers… today almost two‑thirds: See “Labor Force Participation Rates for Wives, Husbands Present, by Age of Own Youngest Child, 1975–1998,” Statistical Abstract, p. 417.

Cameron Lynne Macdonald and Carmen Sirianni: See Working in the Service Society (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1996), edited by Cameron Lynne Macdonald and Carmen Sirianni, p. 2.

A generation ago, three‑quarters of the money… Today about half of the money: The comparison is between money spent on food for consumption at home and money spent on foodservice. See Charlene Price, “Fast Food Chains Penetrate New Markets: Industry Overview,” USDA Food Review , January 1993; “Personal Consumption Expenditures,” U.S. Commerce Department.

90 percent of the country’s new jobs: Cited in Macdonald and Sirianni, Service Society , p. 1.

4 An estimated one out of every eight workers in the United States: Cited in “Welcome to McDonald’s,” McDonald’s Corporation, 1996.

annually hires about one million people : This is my own estimate, based on the following: McDonald’s has about 14,000 restaurants in the United States, each employing about 50 crew members; a conservative estimate of the turnover rate among McDonald’s crew members is about 150 percent; having a workforce of roughly 700,000 and an annual turnover rate of 150 percent requires the hiring of about 1 million new workers every year. In its promotional literature, the McDonald’s Corporation claims to have “surpassed the U.S. Army as the nation’s largest training organization.” Given how McDonald’s actually “trains” its workers, I have used the word “hires” as a synonym. See “Welcome to McDonald’s.”

the nation’s largest purchaser of beef, pork, and potatoes… the second largest purchaser of chicken: See Love, Behind the Arches , pp. 3–4; Mark D. Jekanowski, “Causes and Consequences of Fast Food Sales Growth; Statistical Data Included,” USDA Food Review , January 1, 1999. McDonald’s role as the leading pork purchaser was described to me by a pork industry executive who prefers not to be named.

the largest owner of retail property in the world: See Bruce Upbin, “Beyond Burgers,” Forbes , November 1, 1999; Love, Behind the Arches , p. 4.

earns the majority of its profits : McDonald’s has an unusual franchise arrangement, serving as landlord for its franchisees and adjusting lease payments according to sales levels. About 85 percent of the McDonald’s in the United States are operated by franchisees. See Emerson, New Economics of Fast Food , pp. 59‑62; Love, Behind the Arches , pp. 154–57; “Welcome to McDonald’s.”

spends more money on advertising and marketing: Interview with Lynn Fava, Competitive Media Reporting.

the world’s most famous brand: See “McDonald’s Wins Top Spot in Global Brand Ratings,” Brand Strategy , November 22, 1996.

more playgrounds than any other private entity: Its nearest rival, Burger King, operates about one‑quarter the number of playgrounds.

one of the nation’s largest distributors of toys: According to the British newspaper the Evening Standard, in 1998 McDonald’s purchased 1.3 billion toys from Chinese manufacturers. Cited in Lachlan Colquhoun, “McDonald’s Soars to Success in Chinese Fast Food Market,” Evening Standard, October 21, 1999.

96 percent could identify Ronald McDonald: Cited in “Welcome to McDonald’s.”

The only fictional character with a higher degree: Max Boas and Steve Chain express some reservations about the accuracy of this study, which was conducted by McDonald’s, but I find it credible. A more recent study, conducted by an independent market research firm, found that at least 80 percent of the children in the nine foreign countries surveyed could recognize Ronald McDonald. See Boas and Chain, Big Mac , p. 115; Love, Behind the Arches , p. 2; and “Barbie, McDonald’s Find Common Ground,” Selling to Kids , September 30, 1998.

more widely recognized than the Christian cross: A survey by a marketing firm called Sponsorship Research International – conducted among 7,000 people in the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, Australia, India, and Japan – found that 88 percent could identify the golden arches and that 54 percent could identify the Christian cross. The most widely recognized symbol was the interlocking rings of the Olympics. See “Golden Arches More Familiar Than the Cross,” Plain Dealer , August 26, 1995.

5 “the McDonaldization of America ”: Jim Hightower, Eat Your Heart Out: Food Profiteering in America (New York: Crown, 1975), p. 237.

“bigger is not better ”: Ibid., p. 3.

the final remains of one out of every nine Americans: Cited in Erin Kelly, “Death Takes a Holiday,” Fortune , March 15, 1999.

“We have found out… that we cannot trust ”: Quoted in Love, Behind the Arches , p. 144.

6 America’s largest private employer: The health care industry employs more workers, but a large proportion of them work at publicly owned and operated facilities. See “Employment by Selected Industry, with Projections 1986–2006,” Statistical Abstract, p. 429.

the real value of wages in the restaurant industry: See Patrick Barta, “Rises in Many Salaries Barely Keep Pace with Inflation,” Wall Street Journal, February 1, 2000.

roughly 3.5 million fast food workers : The figure was supplied by the National Restaurant Association.

by far the largest group of minimum wage earners in the United States: Interview with Alan B. Krueger, professor of politics and economics at Princeton University.

The only Americans who consistently earn: Fast food workers are at the bottom of the restaurant industry’s pay scale, and the industry pays the lowest wages of any nonagricultural endeavor. Similarly, migrant farm workers are at the bottom of the agricultural pay scale. Although some farm laborers earn a decent hourly wage, many are paid the minimum wage – or less. See “Non‑Farm Industries – Employees and Earnings, 1980–1998,” Statistical Abstract , p. 436; and Eric Schlosser, “In the Strawberry Fields,” Atlantic Monthly , November 1995.

approximately three hamburgers: My estimate is based on the following: Per capita consumption of ground beef is now about thirty pounds a year, with the vast majority consumed as hamburgers. A regular hamburger patty at McDonald’s weighs 1.6 ounces; using that as a standard, Americans eat about three hundred burgers a year (five to six a week). Using a Quarter Pounder as the standard, Americans eat about 120 hamburgers a year (at least two a week). The consumption figure that I’ve used assumes an average patty weight somewhere between 1.6 and 4 ounces. See “Hamburger Consumption Takes a Hit, But a Reversal of Fortune Is in Offing,” National Provisioner , August 1999.

four orders of french fries every week: Per capita consumption of frozen potato products (a category that is almost entirely french fries) is about 30 pounds a year. A regular order of french fries at McDonald’s weighs 68 grams. Converting the pounds to kilograms and then dividing that number by 68 leaves you with the number of annual french fry servings: 205 (about four per week). See “Potatoes: U.S. Per Capita Utilization by Category, 1991–1999,” USDA Economic Research Service, 2000.

new restaurants are opening there at a faster pace : See “1999 to Mark Eighth Consecutive Year of Growth for Restaurant Industry,” news release, National Restaurant Association, December 22, 1998.

8 “interstate socialism”: Stephen B. Goddard, Getting There: The Epic Struggle between Road and Rail in the American Century (New York: Basic Books, 1994), p. 179.

the inflation‑adjusted value of the minimum wage: Between 1968 and and 1989 the real value of the minimum wage fell from $7.21 to $4.24; in 1995, it stood at $4.38. See “Federal Minimum Wage Rates: 1954–1996,” Statistical Abstract , p. 447.

more prison inmates than full‑time farmers: Today there are fewer than 1 million full‑time farmers in the United States. And there are about 1.3 million people in the nation’s prisons. For the number of full‑time farmers, see “Appendix Table 21 – Characteristics of Farms and Their Operators, by Farm Typology Group, 1996,” Rural Conditions and Trends , USDA Economic Research Service, February 1999. For the number of prison inmates, see “Nation’s Prison and Jail Population Reaches 1,860,520,” press release, Bureau of Justice Statistics, April 19, 2000.

9 “the irrationality of rationality ”: See Ritzer, The McDonaldization of America , pp. 121–42.

1. The Founding Fathers

I spent an afternoon with Carl Karcher at his Anaheim office. My account of his life is largely based on that interview and on a pair of corporate histories: B. Carolyn Knight, Making It Happen: The Story of Carl Karcher Enterprises (Anaheim, Calif.: Carl Karcher Enterprises, 1981); and Carl Karcher with B. Carolyn Knight, Never Stop Dreaming: 50 Years of Making It Happen (San Marcos, Calif.: Robert Erdmann Publishing, 1991). For the history of Anaheim, I relied on John Westcott, Anaheim: City of Dreams (Chatsworth, Calif.: Windsor Publications, 1990). My view of early Los Angeles has been greatly influenced by the work of Carey McWilliams, one of the twentieth century’s finest and most underappreciated journalists. His Southern California Country (New York: Duell, Sloan & Pearce, 1946) and California: The Great Exception (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999) are still vibrant and insightful, though first published more than fifty years ago. Mike Davis is in many ways carrying forward the aims and ideals of McWilliams; City of Quartz (New York: Vintage Books, 1992), especially the material on San Bernardino and Fontana, was both useful and inspiring. Kevin Starr’s The Dream Endures: California Enters the 1940s (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997) gave me a strong sense of life there before the “fabulous boom.” Richard White’s “It’s Your Misfortune and None of My Own”: A New History of the American West (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991) provides a good overview of a region where free enterprise has long been celebrated more in theory than in practice. Marc Reisner’s Cadillac Desert: The American West and Its Disappearing Water (New York: Penguin Books, 1987) aptly describes how water was brought to Los Angeles, and the rest of the arid West, at public expense. “Aerospace Capital of the World: Los Angeles” – a chapter in The Rise of the Gunbelt: The Military Remapping of Industrial America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), by Ann Markuson et al. – outlines how military spending fueled southern California’s postwar economy. For California’s role in the spread of the car culture, I relied on Kenneth T. Jackson’s classic Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985). In Getting There , Stephen B. Goddard shows how the free market had little to do with the triumph of the automobile. Jonathan Kwitny’s “The Great Transportation Conspiracy,” published in Harper’s during February of 1981, is a fine piece of investigative journalism.

The fast food memoir is a growing literary genre; in addition to Carl Karcher’s, I relied on Ray Kroc’s Grinding It Out ; James W. McLamore, The Burger King: Jim McLamore and the Building of an Empire (New York: McGraw‑Hill, 1998); Tom Monaghan, with Robert Anderson, Pizza Tiger (New York: Random House, 1986); Colonel Harland Sanders, Life As I Have Known It Has Been “Finger Lickin’ Good” (Carol Stream, Ill.: Creation House, 1974); R. David Thomas, Dave’s Way: A New Approach to Old‑Fashioned Success (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1991). Richard J. McDonald, one of the founders of the chain with that name, contributed the foreword to Ronald J. McDonald’s interesting book, The Complete Hamburger: The History of America’s Favorite Sandwich (New York: Birch Lane Press, 1997). I learned a great deal from two other books that have similar themes and many evocative photographs: Jeffrey Tennyson, Hamburger Heaven: The Illustrated History of the Hamburger (New York: Hyperion, 1993); and Michael Karl Witzel, The American Drive‑In: History and Folklore of the Drive‑In Restaurant in American Car Culture (Osceola, Wis.: Motor‑books International, 1994). Stan Luxenberg’s Roadside Empires has much information on the early days of the fast food industry, as do John Love’s Behind the Arches and Big Mac , by Max Boas and Steve Chain. William Whitworth’s profile of Colonel Sanders, “Kentucky Fried,” published in the New Yorker on February 14, 1970, remains my favorite piece of writing on fast food.

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13 “The harder you work”: Interview with Carl Karcher.

“This is heaven”: Ibid.

the heart of southern California’s citrus belt: See McWilliams, Southern California Country , p. 206. The chapter titled “The Citrus Belt” is a good account of the region’s cultural and economic life.

14 the leading agricultural counties in the United States: Ibid., p. 213. See also Reisner, Cadillac Desert , p. 87.

about 70,000 acres : Cited in Westcott, Anaheim , p. 67.

the acronym “KIGY” : Ibid., p. 54.

15 “I’m in business for myself now”: Karcher interview.

the population of southern California nearly tripled: Cited in McWilliams, Southern California , p. 14.

About 80 percent of the population : Cited ibid., p. 165.

16 about a million cars in Los Angeles: Cited ibid., p. 236.

Lobbyists from the oil, tire, and automobile industries: See Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier , pp. 163–68.

General Motors secretly began to purchase: For the story of the American trolley’s demise, see Kwitny, “The Great Transportation Conspiracy”; Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier , pp. 168–71; and Goddard, Getting There , pp. 120–37. For a contrary view, much more benign toward General Motors, see Martha J. Bianco, “Technological Innovation and the Rise and Fall of Urban Mass Transit,” Journal of Urban History , March 1999.

17 “People with cars are so lazy”: Quoted in Witzel, American Drive‑In , p. 24.

“circular meccas of neon” : Ibid., p. 47.

18 “fabulous boom ”: McWilliams, The Great Exception , p. 233.

federal government spent nearly $20 billion… federal spending was responsible for nearly half: Cited in White, Your Misfortune , p. 498.

the second‑largest manufacturing center: Ibid., p. 498.

the focus of the local economy: Ibid., p. 515.

19 “Worship as you are”: Quoted in Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier , p. 264.

the fastest‑growing city: Cited in Wescott, Anaheim , p. 71.

Richard and Maurice McDonald: For the story of the McDonald brothers, I have relied on Kroc, Grinding It Out; McDonald, Complete Hamburger; Love, Behind the Arches; Tennyson, Hamburger Heaven; Boas and Chain, Big Mac .

20 “Imagine – No Car Hops”: The ad is reprinted in Tennyson, Hamburger Heaven , p. 62.

“Working‑class families”: Love, Behind the Arches , p. 41.

21 The same year the McDonald brothers opened: For the founding of the Hell’s Angels and the fiftieth anniversary celebration, see Phillip W. Browne, “Ventura Event a ‘Milestone’ for Hell’s Angels,” Ventura County Star , March 15, 1998.

“They get angry when they read”: Hunter S. Thompson, Hell’s Angels: A Strange and Terrible Saga (New York: Ballantine Books, 1995), p. 45.

22 impressed by Adolf Hitler’s Reichsautobahn: See Goddard, Getting There , p. 181;

“1956: Interstate,” Business Week: 100 Years of Innovation , Summer 1999.

46,000 miles of road: “1956: Interstate.”

“Our food was exactly the same”: George Clark, one of the founders of Burger Queen, made this admission. Quoted in Luxenberg, Roadside Empires , p. 76.

William Rosenberg: For the story of Dunkin’ Donuts, see Luxenberg, Roadside Empires , pp. 18–20.

Glenn W. Bell, Jr.: For the story of Taco Bell, see Love, Behind the Arches , pp. 267; Jakle and Sculle, Fast Food , pp. 257–58.

Keith G. Cramer: For the story of Burger King, see McLamore, The Burger King .

Dave Thomas: For the story of Wendy’s, see Thomas, Dave’s Way .

23 Thomas S. Monaghan: For the story of Domino’s, see Monaghan, Pizza Tiger .

Harland Sanders: For the story of KFC, see Sanders, Life As I Have Known It ; and Whitworth, “Kentucky Fried.”

“not to call a no‑good, lazy”: Sanders, Life As I Have Known It , p. 141.

24 The Motormat: See Witzel, American Drive‑In , p. 121.

the Biff‑Burger chain: See Tennyson, Hamburger Heaven , p. 73.

“Miracle Insta Machines”: See McLamore, The Burger King , photo insert between pp. 126 and 127.

25 one of the largest privately owned fast food chains: Karcher, Never Stop Dreaming , p. 79.

accused of insider trading: See Karcher, Never Stop Dreaming , pp. 123–24; Bruce Horovitz and Keith Bradsher, “Carl’s Jr. Founder Accused of Insider Trading Scheme,” Los Angeles Times , April 15, 1988; and Richard Martin, “Karchers Pay $664,000 Fine in Stock Case,” Nation’s Restaurant News , August 7, 1989.

25 Carl’s real estate investments proved unwise: My account of Carl Karcher’s financial difficulties is based primarily on my interview with him. I confirmed the details through a variety of printed sources, including “Carl Karcher Board Rejects Founder’s Bid to Take Firm Private,” Wall Street Journal , December 21, 1992; Thomas R. King, “Chairman of Carl Karcher Enterprises May Seek to Oust Some Board Members,” Wall Street Journal , September 2, 1993; Peggy Hesketh, “Karcher’s ‘Godfather’: Board Says Pizza Baron’s Offer Is One It Can Refuse,” Orange County Business Journal , September 20, 1993; David J. Jefferson, “Fast Food Firm Ousts Karcher as Chairman,” Wall Street Journal , October 4, 1993; Jim Gardner, “Foley‑Karcher: Tentative Team in Control of CKE,” Orange County Business Journal , December 20, 1993; Richard Martin, “Carl N. Karcher: CKE’s Founder Reflects on His Past, Looks Toward His Future,” Nation’s Restaurant News , August 3, 1998.

2. Your Trusted Friends

For the story of Ray Kroc, I relied mainly on his memoir, Grinding It Out ; Max Boas and Steven Chain, Big Mac , and John Love, Behind the Arches . My visit to the Ray A. Kroc museum provided many useful insights into the man. Steven Watts’s The Magic Kingdom: Walt Disney and the American Way of Life (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1997), is by far the best biography of Disney, drawing extensively upon material from the Disney archive and interviews with Disney’s associates. Although I disagree with some of Watts’s conclusions, his research is extraordinary. Richard Schickel’s The Disney Version: The Life, Times, Art, and Commerce of Walt Disney (New York: Avon Books, 1968) remains provocative and highly relevant more than three decades after its publication. Leonard Mosley’s Disney’s World (New York: Stein and Day, 1985) and Marc Eliot’s Walt Disney: Hollywood’s Dark Prince (London: Andre Deutsch, 1993) offer a counterpoint to the hagiographies sponsored by the Walt Disney Company. My view of American attitudes toward technology was greatly influenced by two books: Leo Marx’s The Machine in the Garden: Technology and the Pastoral Ideal in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1970) and David E. Nye’s American Technological Sublime (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1994).

In the growing literature on marketing to children, three books are worth mentioning for what they (often inadvertently) reveal: Dan S. Acuff with Robert H. Reiher, What Kids Buy and Why: The Psychology of Marketing to Kids (New York: Free Press, 1997); Gene Del Vecchio, Creating Ever‑Cool: A Marketer’s Guide to a Kid’s Heart (Gretna, La.: Pelican Publishing, 1998); and James U. McNeal, Kids As Customers: A Handbook of Marketing to Children (New York: Lexington Books, 1992). Some of the articles in children’s marketing journals, such as Selling to Kids and Entertainment Marketing Letter , are remarkable documents for future historians. Two fine reports introduced me to the whole subject of marketing in America’s schools: Consumers Union Education Services, “Captive Kids: A Report on Commercial Pressures on Kids at School,” Consumers Union, 1998; and Alex Molnar, “Sponsored Schools and Commercialized Classrooms: Schoolhouse Commercializing Trends in the 1990s,” Center for the Analysis of Commercialism in Education, University of Wisconsin‑Milwaukee, August 1998. The Center for Science in the Public Interest has been battling for food safety and proper nutrition for more than thirty years. Michael Jacobson’s report “Liquid Candy: How Soft Drinks Are Harming Americans’ Health,” October 1998, is another fine example of the center’s work. The corporate memos from the McDonald’s advertising campaign were given to me by someone who thought I’d find them “enlightening,” and indeed they are.

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32 “One of the highlights of my sixty‑first birthday”: Exhibit, Ray A. Kroc Museum.

33 “to order, control, and keep clean”: Schickel, Disney Version , p. 24.

even more famous than Mickey Mouse: According to John Love, Ronald McDonald is the most widely recognized commercial character in the United States. Love, Behind the Arches , p. 222.

34 “That was where I learned”: Kroc, Grinding It Out , p. 17.

“If you believe in it”: Voice recording, Ray A. Kroc Museum.

35 “When I saw it”: Kroc, Grinding It Out , p. 71.

“through the eyes of a salesman”: Ibid., pp. 9–10, 72.

$100,000 a year in profits: Love, Behind the Arches , p. 19.

“This little fellow comes in”: Voice recording, Ray A. Kroc Museum.

“Dear Walt”: Quoted in Leslie Doolittle, “McDonald’s Plan Cooked Up Decades Ago,” Orlando Sentinel , January 8, 1998.

According to one account: See Boas and Chain, Big Mac , p. 25.

36 “He was regarded as a strange duck”: Kroc, Grinding It Out , p. 19.

describes Walt Disney’s efforts: See Watts, Magic Kingdom , pp. 164–74.

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