Термины для запоминания

Вы должны уметь давать четкие определения и описания перечисленным ниже терминам и понятиям. Если вы вдруг обнаружите, что некоторые из них вызывают у вас затруднения, то внимательно перечитайте раздел, где они рассматриваются.

Бионика. Применение к задачам, стоящим перед человеком, аналогий, которые черпаются из природы.

Бисоциативное мышление. Соединение прежде несовместимых понятий или «систем отсчета».

Вертикальное мышление. Логическое и прямолинейное мышление. Используется для усовершенствования и развития идей. Сравните с латеральным мышлением.

Внешняя мотивация. Задание выполняется ради получения награды или избежания наказания.

Внутренняя мотивация. Собственное желание заниматься каким-либо заданием ради него самого, а не ради награды или чтобы избежать наказания.

Интуиция. Счастливое неожиданное открытие, которое происходит тогда, когда вы его совсем не ждете.

Контрольные списки творческих идей. Эти списки предполагают выработку творческих идей путем варьирования отдельных компонентов задачи и связей между ними.

Латеральное мышление. Размышление «вокруг» проблемы. Используется для выработки новых идей, а иногда как синоним творческого мышления. Сравните с вертикальным мышлением.

Метафора. Аналогия или сравнение, находящее сходства между двумя абсолютно непохожими вещами.

Мозговой штурм. Групповой или индивидуальный метод поиска решения задачи. Поощряется выдвижение неожиданных и необычных идей, а их рассмотрение откладывается до той поры, когда их можно будет модифицировать или скомби-

нировать. Цель состоит в том, чтобы найти как можно больше вариантов решения.

Образ. Отображение чего-либо в мозгу в виде своего рода картины.

Плюс-минус-интересно. План поиска решения Эдварда де Боно (De Bono, 1976), заключающийся в фиксировании положительных, отрицательных и интересных черт рассматриваемых решений.

Подвижность идей. Характеризуется выработкой при решении задач большого количества идей.

Связывающий алгоритм. Этот метод выработки творческих решений основывается на изменении связей между объектами с помощью связующих слов — таких как «на», «между», «под» и «через».

Список свойств. При этом методе выработки творческого решения каждая характеристика или качество объекта или ситуации записывается, а затем исследуется на возможность модификации или перекомбинирования.

Синергия. Соединяет кажущиеся несопоставимыми части в полезное и действующее целое. Такие сочетания часто используются в творческом мышлении.

Творчество (креативность). Создание чего-то оригинального и полезного. Чувствительность. Восприимчивость к информации, получаемой через органы чувств; «подмечает» стимулы, важные для принятия творческого решения.

Глава 11. Слово в заключение

Думать — это как любить и умирать.

Каждый должен делать это сам.

Неизвестный автор

Эта глава может понравиться вам больше всего, потому что в ней практически ничего не сказано. Прочитав эту книгу, вы приобрели знания, которые должны помочь вам лучше мыслить. В каждой главе рассматривался только один тип мышления. Это было необходимо по той причине, что большой объем информации нужно было разбить на более удобные для восприятия части. К сожалению, само мышление не разбивается на аккуратные отдельные категории, и в большинстве ситуаций приходится применять смежные навыки. Нужно постоянно обращаться к памяти и помнить о том, что от того, какие мы используем слова и образы, по сути и зависит то, как мы думаем. Не забывайте о логике. Те методы, которым вы научились, можно использовать на протяжении всей жизни. Но самое важное: мыслите критически. Вы должны обнаруживать проблемы, упущенные другими, поддерживать заключения, опирающиеся на весомые доказательства, и настойчиво работать. Надеюсь, что это книга поможет вам лучше мыслить.

Пришло время оглянуться назад и вспомнить определение критического мышления, данное в первой главе, а также широкие понятия информации и стратегий в последующих главах. Мне кажется, найдено очень верное и емкое определение, в котором подчеркнуто, что под критическим мышлением подразумевается комплекс различных качеств. Сможете ли вы использовать полученную информацию? Как по-вашему, после чтения этой книги вы с большим успехом будете добиваться желаемого? Стали ли вы мыслить более критически?

Будет полезно, если вы постараетесь отобрать и свести вместе те навыки, которые вы используете, когда сталкиваетесь с задачей. Работая над задачей, попытайтесь составить для себя полезную памятку. В произвольной форме, как вам удобно. Работайте над своим мышлением, стремитесь к самосовершенствованию. Рассуждайте мудро. От этого зависит ваше будущее.

Список литературы

Adams A., Camine D., Gersten /?. (1982). Instructional strategies for studying content area texts in the intermediate grades. Reading Research Quarterly, 18,27-55.

Adams J. L. (1979). Conceptual blockbusting: A guide to better ideas (2nd ed.). New York: Norton.

Adams J. L. (1986). The care and feeding of ideas: A guide to encourage creativity. Reading, MA: Addi-son-Wesley.

AdlerR. В., Rosenfeld L. В., Towne N. (1980) Interplay: The process of interpersonal communication. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

Alcock J. E. (1981). Parapsychology: Science or magic? Oxford, England: Pergamon»

Allegretti C. L, Frederick J. N. (1995). A model for thinking critically about ethical issues. In D. F. Halpern & S. G. Nummedal (Eds.), Psychologists teach critical thinking [Special issue]. Teaching of Psychology, 22,46-18.

Allport G. W. (1954). The nature a/prejudice. Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley

Amabile 7\ M. (1983). The social psychology of creativity. New York: Springer-Verlag.

Amabile Т. М. (1989). Crowing up creative: Nurturing a lifetime of creativity. New York: Crown. American Association of Medical Colleges. (1984). Report of the working group on fundamental skills. Journal of Medical Education, 59, 1.

American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.).Washington, DC: Author.

American Psychological Association. (1992). Learner-centered psychological principles: Guidelines for school redesign and reform [Draft]. The Psychology Teacher Network, 2, 5-12.

Anderson B. F. (1980). The complete thinker. A handbook of techniques for creative and critical problem solving. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Arasteh A. R., Arasteh J. D. (1976). Creativity in human development. New York: Schenkman.

Arkes H. R., Hammond, K. R. (Eds.). (1986a). Judgment and decision making: An interdisciplinary reader. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.

Arkes H. R., Hammond, K. R. (1986b). Law. In H. R. Arkes & K. R. Hammond (Eds.), judgment and decision making: An interdisciplinary reader (pp. 211 — 212). Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.

Arnheim R. (1971). Visual thinking. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Asimov 1. (1989, March 31). Combating US scientific illiteracy. Los Angeles Times, Part V, p. 8.

Atkinson R. С (1975). Mnernotechnics in second-language learning. American Psychologist, 30, 821-828. Baddeley A. D. (1986). Working memory. London: Oxford University Press.

Baddeley A. D. (1992). Working memory. Science, 255, 556-559.

Baer J. (1993). Creativity and divergent thinking. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Bailin S. (1987). Creativity and skill. In D. N. Perkins, J. Lochhead, & J. Bishop (Eds.), Thinking: The second international conference (pp. 323-332). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Baron J. (1987). An hypothesis about the training of intelligence. In D. N. Perkins, J. Lochhead, & J. Bishop (Eds.), Thinking: The second internal conference (pp. 60-67). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Baron J. (1988). Thinking and deciding. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Baron J. (1990). Harmful heuristics and the improvement of thinking. In D. Kuhn (Ed.). Developmental perspectives on teaching and learning thinking skills (pp. 28-47). New York. Basel, Karger.

Baron. J., Brown. R. V. (Eds.). (1991). Teaching decision making to adolescents. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Baron J. В., Sternberg R. J. (Eds.) (1987). Teaching thinking skills: Theory and practice. New York Freeman.

Barron, F. (1958). The psychology of imagination. Scientific American, 199,151-166. Bartlett F. С (1932). Remembering: A study In experimental and social psychology. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

Bartlett J. (1980). Familiar quotations (15th and 125^th anniversary eds.). Boston: Little, Brown.

Bartlett J. (1992) Familiar quotations. (17th ed.). Boston: Little, Brown.

Bauer M. /., Johnson-Laird P. N. (1993). How diagrams can improve reasoning. Psychological Science, 4, 372-378.

Begley S. (1993, June 28). The puzzle of genius. Newsweek, pp. 46-49.

Beilensen J., Jackson H. (Eds.). (1992). Voices of struggle, voices of pride. White Plains. NY: Peter Pauper Press, Inc. Bell R., Caplans, J. (1976). Decisions, decisions: Game

theory and you. New York; Norton. BergerD. (1994). Critical thinking. Paper presented at Loma Linda Medical Center. Available from author at Claremont Graduate School, Claremont, CA.

Berger, D. (1995). Errors in judgments and decisions: Understanding our cognitive fallibilities. In P. Foster (Ed.), Critical Thinking: Views and values in college teaching (pp. 48-68). Riverside, CA: La Sierra University Press.

Berkowitz L., Thome P. R. (1987). Pain expectation, negative affect, and angry aggression. Motivation and Emotion, 11, 183-193.

Berlin В., Kay P. (1969). Basic color terms: Their universality and evolution. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Berliner И. J. (1977). Some necessary conditions for a master chess program. In P. N. Johnson-Laird & P.

С. Wason (Eds.), Thinking: Readings in cognitive science. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

Bernstein D. A. (1995). A negotiation model for teaching critical thinking. In D. F. Halpern & S. G. Nummedal (Eds.), Psychologists teach critical thinking. [Special Issue]. Teaching of Psychology, 22, 22-24.

Beyth-Marom R, Dekel S., Gombo R., & Shaked M. (1985). An elementary approach to thinking under uncertainty. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Block RA. (1985). Education and thinking skills reconsidered. American Psychologist, 40, 574-575.

Bloom B. S., Broder, L. J. (1950). Problem solving processes of college students. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

Boden M. A. (1990). The creative mind: Myths & mechanisms. New York: Basic Books.

Boring E. G. (1932). Intelligence as the tests test it. New Republic, 35, 35-37.

Bousfield, W. A. (1953) The occurrence of clustering in the recall of randomly arranged associates. Journal of General Psychology. 49, 229-240.

Bower G. H. (1970). Organizational factors in memory. Cognitive Psychology, 1, 18-46.

Bower G. H. (1972). Mental imagery and associative learning. In L. Gregg (Ed.), Cognition in learning and memory. New York; Wiley.

Bower G. (1994, May 25). Electronic communication from Marina Volkov at the Federation of Behavioral, Psychological, and Cognitive Sciences, federation@apa.org.

Bower G. H., Cirilo R. K. (1985). Cognitive psychology and text processing. In Handbook of Discourse Analysis, (Vol. 1, pp. 71-105). New York: Academic Press.

Bower G. H., Clapper, J. P. (1989). Experimental methods in cognitive science. In M. I. Posner (Ed.), Foundations of cognitive science (pp. 245-301). Cambridge, MA MIT Press.

Bower G. H., Clark M. C. (1969). Narrative stones as mediators for serial learning. Psychonomic Science, 14,181-182.

Boxall B. (1993, October 12). Statistics and science can be twisted to suit debate. The Los Angeles Times, p. A18.

Bozzell L В., III. (1993, July 21). Exposing statistical myths. The Washington Times, p. 64.

Bradbury R. (1950). Fahrenheit 451. New York: Simon & Schuster.

Braine M. D. S. (1978). On the relation between the natural logic-of reasoning and standard logic. Psychological Review, 85,1-21.

Brans ford D. (1979). Human cognition: Learning, understanding and remembering. Belmont, CA: Wad-sworth.

Bransford J. D., Arbitman-Smith /?., Stein, B. S., Vye N.J. (1985). Improving thinking and learning skills: An analysis of three approaches. In J. W. Segal & S. F. Chipman (Eds.), Thinking and learning skills: Volume 1. Relating instruction to research (pp. 133-206). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Bransford J. D., Johnson M. K. (1972). Contextual prerequisites for understanding: Some investigations of comprehension and recall. Journal of Verbal learning and Verbal Behavior, 11, 717-726.

Bransford J. D., Sherwood /?., Vye N., RieserJ. (1986). Teaching thinking and problem solving: Research foundations. American Psychologist, 41, 1078— 1089.

Bransford J. D., Stein B. S. (1993). The ideal problem solver: A guide for improving thinking, learning, and creativity (2nd ed.). New York: Freeman.

Brehm J. W. (1956). Postdecision changes in the desirability of alternatives. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 52, 384-389.

Brennan J. (1993b. May 20). Why polls can be poles apart. The Los Angeles Times, p. A5.

Brim 0. G., Jr. (1966). High and low self-estimates of intelligence. In 0. G.

Brim Jr., R. S. Crutchfield, W. H. Holtzman (Eds.), Intelligence: Perspectives 1965. New York: Har-court, Brace & World.

Brody J. E. (1988, March 30). Unresolved relationship: Breast cancer, dietary fat. San Francisco Chronicle, pp. 2-3.

Brooks L W., Simutis Z. M., O'Neil H. F., Jr. (1985). The role of individual differences in learning strategies research. In R. F. Dillon (Ed.l, Individual differences in cognition (Vol. 2, pp. 219-251). New York: Academic Press.

Bross I. D. J. (1973). Languages in cancer research. In G. F. Murphy, D. Pressman, & E. A. Mirand (Eds.), Perspectives in cancer research and treatment (pp. 213-221), New York: Alan R. Liss.

Brown R. (1958). Words and things. New York: The Free Press.

Brown A. L., Campione J. C. (1990). Communities of learning and thinking or a context by any other name. In D. Kuhn (Ed.), Developmental perspectives on teaching and learning thinking skills. Contributions to human development (Vol. 21, pp. 108-126). Basel Switzerland: Karger.

Brown S., Walter M. (1993). Problem posing: Reflections and applications. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Bruer J. T. (1993). Schools for thought. Cambridge, MA: MTT Press.

Brunei J. S. (1957). On going beyond the information given. In Contemporary approaches to cognition (pp. 41-69). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Bruner J. S._t Goodnow J. J., Austin G. A. (1956). A study of thinking. New York: Wiley.

Bugllosi V. (1978). Till death do us part. New York: Bantam Books.

Burke D. M., MacKay D. G., Worthley J. S., & Wade E. (1991). On the tip of the tongue: What causes word finding failures in young and older adults? Journal of Memory and Language, 30, 542-579.

Byrne R. (1988). One thousand nine hundred eleven best things anybody ever said. New York: Fawcett.

CampbellS. K. (1974). Flaws and fallacies in statistical thinking. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice.Hall.

Carey J., Foltz K., Allan /?. A. (1983, February 7). The mind of the machine. Newsweek.

Carkhuff R. R. (1973). The art of problem solving. Amherst, MA: Human Resource Development Press.

Carlson E. (1995). Evaluating the credibility of sources: A missing link in the teaching of critical thinking. In D. F. Halpern & S. G. Nummedal (Eds.), Psychologists teach critical thinking [Special issue). Teaching of Psychology, 22, 39-41.

Carpenter E. J. (1981). Piagetian interviews of college students. In R. G. Fuller et al. (Eds.), Piagetian programs in higher education (pp. 15-22). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.

Carroll D. W. (1986). Psychology of language. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.

Carroll L. (1971). Through the looking glass. London: Oxford University Press. (Original work published 1872)

Cassel J. F., Congleton R. I. (1993). Critical thinking: An annotated bibliography. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press.

Ceci S. J., Ruiz A. I. (1993). Inserting context into our thinking about thinking: Implications for a theory of everyday intelligent behavior. In M. Rabinowitz (Ed.). Cognitive science foundations of instruction (pp. 173-188). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Ceraso J., Protivera A. (1971). Sources of error in syllogistic reasoning. Cognitive Psychology, 2, 400-416.

Champagne A. B. (1992). Cognitive research on thinking in academic science and mathematics: Implications for practice and policy. In D. F. Halpern (Ed.), Enhancing thinking skills in the sciences and mathematics (pp. 117-134). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Chance P. (1986). Thinking in the classroom: A survey of programs. New York: Teachers College Press.

Chang J. (1993). Wild swans: Three daughters of China. New York: HarperCollins.

Chapman L. J., Chapman J. P. (1959). Atmosphere effect reexamined. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 58, 220-226.

Chapman L. /., Chapman J. P. (1967). The genesis of popular but erroneous psychodiagnostic observations. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 72, 193-204.

Chapman L. J., Chapman J. F. (1969). Illusory correlation as an obstacle to the use of valid psychodiagnostic signs. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 74, 271-280.

Cheng P. W., Holyoak K. J. (1985). Pragmatic reasoning schemas. Cognitive Psychology, 17, 391-416.

Chester P. (1972). Women and madness. New York: Doubleday.

ChiM. T. H., GlaserR., Farr. M. J. (Eds.). (1988). The nature of expertise. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Cialdini R. В. (1993). Influence: Science and practice (3rd ed.). Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman.

Clark H. H., Clark E. V. (1977). Psychology and language: An introduction to psycholinguistics. New York: Harcourt Brace.

Clark H. H., Haviland S. E. (1977). Comprehension and the given-new contract. In R. 0. Freedle (Ed.), Discourse production and comprehension. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Clarkson-Smith L., Halpern D. F. (1983). Can age related deficits in spatial memory be attenuated through the use of verbal coding? Experimental Aging Research, 9, 179-184.

Clinton's message to USA's students: Learn to earn. (1994. February 24). USA Today International Edition, p.6A.

The Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt (1993). Toward integrated curricula: Possibilities from anchored instruction. In M. Rabinowitz (Ed.), Cognitive science foundations of instruction (pp. 33-56). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Cohen G. (1989). Memory in the real world. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Collins A. F., Gathercole S. E., Conway M. A., Morris P. E. (Eds.). (1993). Theories of memory. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Collins C, Mangieri J. N. (Eds.). (1992). Teaching thinking: An agenda for the 21st century. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Copi I. M. (1986). Informal logic. New York; Macmillan.

Cordes C. (1983, April). Search goes on for «best» ways to learn science. American Psychological Association Monitor, pp. 7-8.

Coughlin E. K. (1993, November 10). When people make up their minds, psychologist says, they often do not really make up their minds at all. The Chronicle of Higher Education, pp. A9, A15.

Covington M. V. (1987). Instruction in problem solving and planning. In S. L. Friedman, E. K. Scholnick & R. R. Cocking (Eds.), Blueprints for thinking: The role of planning in cognitive development (pp. 469-511). Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.

Covington M. V., Crutchfield R. S., Davies L. В., 01-ton R. M., Jr. (1974). The productive thinking program. Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill.

Craik F. I. M., Salthouse T. A. (Eds.). (1992). The handbook of aging and cognition. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Crovitz H. F. (1970). Calton's walk: Methods for the analysis of thinking, intelligence and creativity. New York: Harper & Row.

Crutchfield R. S. (1966). Creative thinking in children: Its teaching and testing. In O. G. Brim, Jr., R. S. Crutchfield & W. H. Holtzman (Eds.), Intelligence: Perspectives 1965, The Terman.Otis Memorial Lectures. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World.

Dahlstrom G. W. (1993). Tests: Small samples, large consequences. American Psychologist, 48(4), 393-399.

Darner Т. E. (1987). Attacking faulty reasoning (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

d'Angelo E. (1971). The teaching of critical thinking. Amsterdam: Gruner.

DavisG.A.,Roweton W. (1968). Using idea checklists with college students: Overcoming resistance. Journal of Psychology, 70, 221-226.

Davis G. A., & Scott J. A. (Eds.). (1971). Training creative thinking. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

Dawes R. M. (1979). The robust beauty of improper linear models in decision making. American Psychologist, 34, 571-582.

Dawes R. M. (1988). Rational choice in an uncertain world. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich.

Dawes R. M. (1989). Experience and validity of clinical judgment: The illusory correlation. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 7, 457-467.

Dawes R. M. (1993, June 9). Finding guidelines for tough decisions. The Chronicle of Higher Education, p. A40.

Dawes R. M. (1994). House of cards: Psychology and psychotherapy built on myth. New York: The Free Press.

Day R. S., Rodin G. C, Stoltzfus E. R. (1990, March 31). Alternative representations for medication instructions: Effects on young and old adults. Paper presented at the 3rd Cognitive Aging Conference, Atlanta.

DeBono E. (1967). The use of lateral thinking. London: Ebenezer Bayles and Son, Limited.

DeBono.E. (1968). New think: The use of lateral thinking in the generation of new ideas. New York: Basic Books.

DeBono. E. (1976). Teaching thinking. London: Temple Smith.

DeBono. E. (1977). Information processing and new ideas — lateral and vertical thinking. In S. J. Par-nes R. B. Noller & A. M. Biondi (Eds.), Guide to creative action: Revised edition of creative behavior guidebook. New York: Scribner's.

DeBono E. (1991). Teaching thinking. London: Penguin.

DecykB. N. (1994). Using examples to teach concepts. In D. F. Halpern (Ed.) Changing college classrooms: New teaching and learning strategies for an increasingly complex world (pp. 39-63). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

deGroot, A. A. (1983). Heuristics, mental programs, and intelligence. In R. Groner M. Groner, & W. F. Bis-chof (Eds.), Methods of heuristics (pp. 109-129). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

deGroot A. D. (1966). Perception and memory versus thought: Some old ideas and recent findings. In B. Kleinmuntz (Ed.), Problem solving: Research, method and theory. New York: Wiley.

De Lopez R. S. (1992, June 16). Promote thinking, say university leaders. The News, Mexico City, p. B4.

Dember W. N., Jenkins J. J., Teyler T. (1984). General psychology (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Derry S., Levin J. /?., Schauble L. (1995). Stimulating statistical thinking through situated simulations. In D. F. Halpern & S. G. Nummedal (Eds.), Psychologists teach critical thinking [Special issue]. Teaching of Psychology, 22, 51-57.

Dewey J. (1933). How we think: A restatement of the relation of reflective thinking to the educative process. Boston: Heath.

Doolittle J. H. (1995). Using riddles and interactive computer games to teach problem solving. In D. F. Halpern & S. G. Nummedal (Eds.), Psychologists teach critical thinking [Special Issue], Teaching of Psychology, 22, 33-36.

Domer D. (1983). Heuristics and cognition in complex systems. In R. Groner, M. Groner, & W. F. Bischof (Eds.), Methods of heuristics (pp. 89-107). Hills-dale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Dreman D. (1979). Contrarian investment strategy: The psychology of the stock market success. New York: Random House.

Duncan С. P. (1961). Attempts to influence performance on an insight problem. Psychological Reports, 9, 35-42.

Duncker K. (1945). On problem solving. Psychological Monographs (Whole No. 270).

Eagly A., Chaiken S. (1993). The psychology of attitudes. New York: Harcourt Brace.

Edwards J., & Baldauf В., Jr. (1987). The effects of the CORT.l thinking skills program on students. In D. N. Perkins, I. Lockhead, & J. Bishop (Eds.), Thinking: The second international conference (pp. 453-473). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Ekman P. (1992). Telling lies: Clues to deceit in the marketplace, politics and marriage. New York: Norton.

Evans J. St. В. Т. (1989). Bias m human reasoning. Causes and consequences. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Evans J. St. B. T.,Newstead,S.E. (1993). Human reasoning: The psychology of deduction. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Eylon В., Linn M. С (1988. Fall). Learning and instruction: An examination of four research perspectives in science education. Review of Educational Research, pp. 251-301.

Facione P. (1991, August). Teaching college-level critical thinking skills. Paper presented at the 11th Annual International Conference on Critical Thinking and Educational Reform, Sonoma, CA.

Ferguson G. (1981). Architecture. In N. L. Smith (Ed.). Metaphors for evolution: Soureces of new methods. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Festinger L. (Ed.). (1964). Conflict, decision and dissonance. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press.

Festinger I., Riecken И. W., Schacter, S. (1956). When prophecy fails. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

Feyerabend P. (1975). Against method. London: Verso.

Feynman R. (1989). What do you care what other people think? New York: Bantam.

Finke R. A., Ward Т. В., Smith S. M. (1992). Creative cognition: Theory, research, and applications. Cambridge, MA: Bradford.

Fischer G. W., Johnson E. J. (1986). Behavioral decision theory and political decision making. In R. R. Lau & D. O. Soars (Eds.), The 19th Annual Carnegie Symposium on Cognition: Political Cognition (pp 55-65) Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Fischoff B. (1975). Hindsight^foresight: The effect of outcome knowledge on Judgment under uncertainty. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 1, 288-299.

Fischhoff B. (1993, March/April). Controversies over risk: Psychological perspective on competence. Psychological Science Agenda, 6, 8-9.

Fischoff В., Lichtenstein S., Slouic P., Derby S. L, Keeney R. L. (1981). Acceptable risk. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

Fisher R., Ury W. (1991). Getting to «yes»: Negotiating agreement without giving in (2nd ed.). New York: Penguin.

Fiske S. T. (1993). Controlling other people: The impact of power on stereotyping. American Psychologist, 48, 621-628.

Fiske S. T, Taylor S. E. (1984). Social cognition. New York: Random House. Fixx J F. (1978). Solve it. New York: Doubleday

Flesph /?. (1951). The art of clear thinking. New York: Harper & Row.

Fogelin R. J. (1987). Understanding arguments, an introduction to informal logic (3rd ed.). New York: Harcourt Brace.

Fong G. Т., Krantz D., Nisbett R. E. (1986). The effects of statistical training on thinking about everyday problems. Cognitive Psychology, 18, 253-292.

Fong G. Т., Nisbett. R. E. (1991). Immediate and delayed transfer of training effects in statistical reasoning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Leanning and Cognition. 120, 34-45.

Footnotes. (1994, April 20). The Chronicle of Higher Education.

Fox L. S., Marsh G., Crandall Jr., J. С (1983, April 30). The effect of college classroom experiences on formal operational thinking. Paper presented at the 1983 Annual Convention of the Western Psychological Association, San Francisco.

Frammolino R. (1993, December 17). Most college GEDs fail simple tests, study finds. The Los Angeles Times, pp. A41, A43.

Frazier K. (Ed.). (1991). The hundredth monkey and other paradigms of the paranormal. Buffalo, NY: Prometheus.

Friedman S. L., Scholnick E. K., Cocking R. R. (Eds.). (1987). Blueprints for thinking: The role of planning jn cognitive development. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.

Fruzzetti A. E., Toland K., Teller S. A., Loftus E. A. (1992). Memory and eyewitness testimony. In M. M. Gruneberg and P. E. Morris (Eds.), Aspects of memory: The practical aspects (Vol. 1) 2nd ed. New York: Routledge.

Gardner И. (1982). Art, mind and brain: A cognitive approach to creativity. New York: Basic Books.

Gardner H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York Basic Books.

Gardner H. (1985). The mind's new science: A history of the cognitive revolution. New York: Basic Books.

Gardner H. (1989). To open minds. New York: Basic Books.

Gardner H. (1993). Creating minds: An anatomy of creativity seen through the lives of Freud, Einstein, Picasso, Stravinsky, Eliot, Graham, and Gandhi. New York- Basic Books.

GarfieldJ.,Ahlgren,A. (1988). Difficulties in learning basic concepts in probability and statistics: Implications for research. Journal [or Research in Mathematics Education, 19(1), 44-63.

Garnham A., Oakhill J. (1994). Thinking and reasoning. Oxford, England: Blackwe.

Geiselman R. E., & Fisher R. P. (1985, December). Interviewing victims and witnesses of crime. Research in Brief, National Institute of justice, 1-4.

Gentner D., Gentner D. R. (1983). Flowing water or teeming crowds: Mental models of electricity. In D. Centner & A. L. Stevens (Eds.), Mental models. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Gerbner G., Grass L., Morgan M., Signorielli N. (1980). Violence profile No. 11: Trends in network television drama and viewer conceptions of social reality. Philadelphia: Annennberg School of Communication.

Gick M. I., Holyoak K. (1980). Analogical problem solving. Cognitive Psychology, 12, 306-355.

Gifford-Jones W. (1977). What every woman should know about hysterectomy. New York: Funk & Wagnalls.

Gilbreth F.B.(\963). Cheaper by the dozen. New York: Crowell.

Gilhooly K. J. (1987). Mental modeling: A framework for the study of thinking. In D. N. Perkins, J. Loch-head. & J. Bishop (Eds.), Thinking: The second international conference (pp. 19-32). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Gillette R. (1987, December 4). Exotic ways to learn doubted by U.S. study. The Wall Street Journal. pp. 1,32.

Gilovich T. (1991). How we know what isn't so: The fallibility of human reason in everyday life. New York: Macmillan.

Glaser R. (1984). Education and thinking: The role of knowledge. American Psychologist, 39,93-104.

Glaser R. (1992). Expert knowledge and processes of thinking. In D. F. Halpern (Ed.), Enhancing thinking skills in the sciences and mathematics (pp. 63-76). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Glucksberg S., Weisberg R. W. (1966). Verbal behavior and problem solving: Some effects of labeling in a functional fixedness problem. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 71, 659-664.

Goleman D., Kaufman P., Ray M. (1993). The creative spirit. New York: Penguin.

Gordon W. J. J. (1961). Synectics. New York: Harper & Row.

Gordon W. J. J. (1976). Metaphor and invention. In A. Rothenberg & С R. Hausman (Eds.), The creativity Question. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.

Govier T. (1985). A practical study of argument. Bel-mont, CA: Wadsworth.

Gray W. (1991). Thinking critically about new age ideas. Belmont. CA: Wadsworth.

Greeno J. G. (1973). The structure of memory and the process of solving problems. In R. L. Solso (Ed.), Contemporary issues in cognitive psychology. Washington DC: Winston.

Greeno J. G. (1992). Mathematical and scientific thinking in classrooms and other situations. In D. F, Halp-ern (Ed.), Enhancing thinking skills in the sciences and mathematics (pp. 39-62). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Griffiths D.HAl976). Physics teaching: Does it hinder intellectual development? American Journal of Physics, 44, 81-85.

Gruneberg M., Morris P. (Eds.), (1992). Aspects of memory; The practical aspects. (Vol. 1) 2nd. ed. New York: Routledge.

Cuilford J. P. (1977). Way beyond the IQ. Buffalo, NY: Creative Education Foundation.

Gunther M. (1977). The luck factor. New York: Mac-millan. Hadamard, J. (1954). The psychology of invention in the mathematical field. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Hains A. A., Hains A. H. (1987). The effects of a cognitive strategy intervention on the problem solving abilities of delinquent youths. Journal of Adolescence, 10,399-413.

Halpern D. F. (1985). The influence of sex role stereotypes on prose recall. Sex Roles, 12, 363-375.

Halpern D. F. (1987a). Analogies as a critical thinking skill. In D. Berger, K. Peydek, & W. Banks (Eds.), Applications of cognitive psychology: Computing and education (pp. 75-86). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Halpern D. F. (1987b). Thinking across the disciplines: Methods and strategies to promote higher.order thinking in every classroom. In M. Heiman & J. Slomianko (Eds.), Thinking skills instruction: Concepts and techniques (pp. 69-76). Washington, DC; National Education Association.

Halpern D. F. (1992). Sex differences in cognitive abilities (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Halpern D. F. (Ed.). (1994). Changing college classrooms: New teaching and learnng strategies for an increasingly complex world. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Halpern D. F. (in press). The skewed logic of The Bell Curve. Skeptic.

Halpern D. F., Blackman S. (1985). Magazines vs. physicians. The influence of information source on intentions to use oral contraceptives. Women and Health, 10, 9-23.

Halpern D. F., Blackman S., Salzman B. (1989). Using statistical risk information to assess oral contraceptive safety. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 3,251-260.

Halpern D. E, Hansen C, Riefer D. (1990). Analogies as an aid to comprehension and memory. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 298-305. Halpern D. F., Irwin F. W. (1973). Selection of hypotheses as affected by their preference values. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 101, 105-108. Halpern D. E., Nummedal S. G. (Eds.). (1995). Psychologists teach critical thinking [Special Issue]. Teaching of Psychology, 22. Hanson N. R. (1958). Patterns of discovery. Cambridge,

England: Cambridge University Press. Harman G. (1986). Change in view: Principles of reasoning. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Harris R. J. (1977). Comprehension and pragmatic implications in advertising. Journal of Applied Psychology, 62, 603-608. Harris S. B. (1993). The resurrection myth in religion,

science, and science fiction. Skeptic, 2, 50-59. Hasher L., Zacks R. T. (1984). Automatic processing of fundamental information. American Psychologist, 39,1372-1388. Hayes J. R. (1978). Cognitive psychology. Homewood, IL: Dorsey.

Hayes J. R. (1982). Issues in protocol analysis. In G. R. Ungson & D. N. Braunstein (Eds.), Decision making: An interdisciplinary approach. Boston: Kent. Hayes J. R. (1989). Cognitive processes in creativity. In J A. Glover, R. R. Ronning, & С R. Reynolds (Eds.), Handbook of creativity (pp. 135-145). New York: Plenum.

Heiman M., Slomianko J. (1986). Critical thinking skills. Washington, DC: National Education Association.

Heller /?., Sattzstein H. D., Caspe W. (1992). Heuristics in medical and non-medical decision-making. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, pp. 211-235. HenleM. (1962). On the relation between logic and

thinking. Psychological Review, 69, 366-378. Hennessey B. A., Amabile Т. М. (1987). Creativity and learning. Washington, DC: National Education Association.

Hennessey B. A., Amabile T.M.(1988). The conditions of creativity. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), The nature of creativity: Contemporary psychological perspectives (pp. 11-38). Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press. Herrmann D. J. (1991). Super memory. Emmaus, PA:

Rodale.

Herrmann D. J., Weingartner H., Searleman A., McE-voy C. L. (Eds.). (1992). Memory improvement: Implications of memory theory. New York: Springer-Verlag.

Herrnstein R. J., Murray C. (1994). The bell curve: Intelligence and class structure in American life. New York; The Free Press.

Herrnstein R. J., Nickerson R. S., Sanchez M., Swets J. A. (1986). Teaching thinking skills. American Psychologist, 41, 1279-1289.

Hill P., Bedau H., Checile R., Crochetiere W., Kellerman В., Dunjian D., Pauker S., Rubin J. (1979).

Making decisions: A multidisciplinary introduction. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

Hitchcock D. (1983). Critical thinking: A guide to evaluating information. Toronto: Methuen.

Hogarth R. M. (1988). Judgment and choice: The psychology of decision (2nd ed.). Chichester, England: Wiley.

Holland J. H., Holy oak K. J., Nisbett R. £., Thagard P. R. (1986). Induction: Processes of inference, learning, and discovery. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Holley C. D., Dansereau D. F. (1984). Networking: The technique and the empirical evidence. In C. D. Holley & D. F. Dansereau (Eds.), Spatial learning strategies: Techniques, applications, and related issues (pp. 81-108). New York: Academic Press.

Holley C. D., Dansereau D. F., McDonald B. A., Garland J. D., Collins K. W. (1979). Evaluation of a hierarchical mapping technique as an aid to prose processing. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 4, 227-237.

Holt J. (1964). How children fail. New York: Dell.

Holt J. (1989). Learning all the time. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

Hostetler A. J. (1988, January). Army eyes novel learning methods. The American Psychological Association Monitor, 19, 7.

Huff D. (1954). How to lie with statistics. New York: Norton.

Hunt E. (1989). Cognitive science: Definition, status, and questions. In M. R. Rosenzweig & L. W. Porter (Eds.), Annual review of psychology, 40,603-630.

Hunt M. (1982). The universe within. A new science explores the human mind. New York: Simon &: Schustec.

Hutchings P. (1986). Some late night thoughts on teaching creativity. American Association for Higher Educawn, 39, 9-14.

Izawa С (1993). Efficient learning: The total time, exposure duration, frequency, and programming of the study phase. In С Izawa (Ed.), Cognitive psychology applied (pp. 43-78). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Izawa C, Hayden R. G. (1993). Race against time: Toward the principle of optimization in learning and retention. In C. Izawa (Ed.), Cognitive psychology applied (pp. 15-42). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Jacoby L. L., Kelley С. М., Dywan, J. (1989). Memory attributions. In H. L. Roedinger & F. I M. Craik (Eds.), Varietes of memory and consciousness: Essays in honor of Endel Tulving (pp. 391 -422). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

James W. (1890). The principles of psychology New York: Holt.

Janis I. L. (1989). Crucial decisions: Leadership in policy making and crisis management. New York: The Free Press.

Janis I. L., Mann L. (1977). Decision making: A psychological analysis of conflict, choice and commitment. New York: The Free Press.

Jason G. (1987). Are fallacies common? A look at two debates. Informal Logic, 8, 81-92.

Jensen A. R. (1980). Bias in mental testing. New York: The Free Press.

Jensen A. R. (1981). Straight talk about mental tests. New York: The Free Press.

Johnson M. K., Raye C. L. (1981). Reality monitoring. Psychological Review, 88,67-85.

Johnson-Laird P. N.. Byrric R. M. J. (1991). Deduction. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Johnson-Laird P. N.. Legrenzi P., Legrenzi M. (1972). Reasoning and a sense of reality. British Journal of Psychology. 63, 395-400.

Johnson-Laird P. N., Wason P. C. (1970). A theoretical analysis of insight into a reasoning task. Cognitive Psychology, 1, 134-148.

Johnson-Laird P. N., Wason P. С (Eds). (1977). Thinking Readings in cognitive science. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

Kahane H. (1980). Logic and contemporary rhetoric: The use of reason in everyday life (2nd ed.). Bel-mont, CA: Wadsworth.

Kahane H. (1992). Logic and contemporary rhetoric: The use of reason in everyday life (6th ed.). Bel-mont, CA: Wadsworth.

Kahneman D., Tver sky A. (1973). On the psychology of prediction. Psychological Review, 80, 237-251.

Kahneman D., Tversky A. (1979). Prospect theory: An analysis of decision under risk. Econometrica, 47, 263-291.

Kamin L. J. (1974). The science and politics of IQ. New York: Wiley.

Kavanaugh D. J., Bower G. H. (1985). Mood and self-efficacy: Impact of joy and sadness on perceived capabilities. Cognitive Therapy & Research, 9, 507-525.

Kelley D. (1988). The art of reasoning. New York: Norton.

Kellogg R. T. (1990, Fall). Effectiveness of prewriting strategies as a function of task demands. American Journal of Psychology, pp. 327-342.

Kidd V. (1991, Fall). An analysis of the California tobacco education campaign's visual anti-smoking messages. Feedback, 32,14-18.

Kimble G. A. (1978). How to use (and misuse) statistics. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

King A. (1989). Effects of self-questioning training on college students' comprehension of lectures. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 14, 1-16.

King A. (1992). Facilitating elaborative learning through guided student-generated questioning. Educational Psychologist, pp. 111-126.

King A. (1994). Inquiry as a tool in critical thinking. In D. F. Halpern (Ed.), Changing college classrooms: New teaching and learning strategies in an increasingly complex world (pp. 13-38). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

King A. (1995). Inquiring minds really do want to know: Using questioning to teach critical thinking. In D. F. Halpern & S. G. Nummedal (Eds.), Psychologists teach critical thinking [Special issue]. Teaching of Psychology, 22,13-17.

Klaczynski P. A. (1993). Reasoning schema effects on adolescent rule acquisition and transfer. Journal of Educational Psychology, 85, 679-692.

Klein G. A., WeizenfeldJ. (1978). Improvement of skills for solving ill-defined problems. Educational Psychologist, 13, 31-41.

Kneller G. F. (1965). The art and science of creativity. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

Knight K., Dansereau D. F. (1992). Tools for drug and alcohol education: Using decision worksheets in personal problem solving. Journal of Drug Education, 22(3), 261-271.

Koestler A. (1964). The act of creation. London: Hutch-inson.

Kohl H. (1981). A book of puzzlements: Play and invention with language. New York: Schocken Books.

Kohler W. (1925). The mentality of apes. New York: Harcourt, Brace.

Kohler W. (1969). The task of Gestalt psychology. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Koriat A., Lihtenstein S., Fischhoff B. (1980). Reasons for confidence. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Human Learning and Memory, 6,107-118.

Kruglanski A. W. (1992). On methods of good judgment and good methods of judgment: Political decisions and the art of the possible. Political Psychology, 13,455-475.

Kuhn D. (1993, January). Connecting scientific and informal reasoning. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, pp. 74-103.

Kuhn D., Weinstock M., Flaton R. (1994). How well do jurors reason? Competence dimensions of individual variation in a juror reasoning task. Psychological Science, 5, 289-296

Kunda Z., Nisbett R. E. (1986). The psychometrics of everyday life. Cognitive Psychology, 18,195-224.

LangerE. J. (1989). Mindfulness. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley

Langer E. (1994, July). Improving the quality of thinking in a changing world. Paper presented at the Sixth International Conference on Thinking, Cambridge, MA.

LangerE. J., Blank A., Chanowitz B. (1978). The mind-lessness of ostensibly thoughtful action: The role of «placebic» information in interpersonal interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 635-642.

Langley P., Simon H. A., Bradshaw G. L., Zytkow J. M. (1987). Scientific discovery: Computational explorations of the creative process. Cambridge. MA: "MIT Press.

LangrehrS. (1990) Sharing thinking strategies. Bloom-ington, IN: National Educational Service.

Larrick R. P., Morgan J. N.. Nisbett R. E. (1990). Teaching the use of cost-benefit reasoning in everyday life. Psychological Science, 1, 362-370.

Lee A.M. (1953). How to understand propaganda. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Company.

Leedy P. D. (1981). How to read research and understand it. New York: Macmillan.

Lehman D. R., Lempert R. 0., Nisbett R. E. (1988). The effects of graduate training on reasoning: Formal discipline and thinking about everyday-life events. American Psychologist, pp. 431-442.

Lehman D. R., Nisbett R. E. (1990). A longitudinal study of the effects of undergraduate training on reasoning. Developmental Psychology, 26,431-442.

Leive C. (1994, April). Miss America. Glamour, pp. 234-237,275-281.

Levi D. S. (1991). Critical thinking and logic. Salem, WI: Sheffield.

Levine M. (1994). Effective problem solving (2nd ed.) Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Lewis А. В., Mayer R. E. (1987). Students' miscomprehension of relational statements in arithmetic word problems. Journal of Educational Psychology, 79, 363-371.

Lichtenstein S., Slovic P., Fischoff В., Layman M., Combs B. (1978). Judged frequency of lethal events. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Human Learning and Memory, 4, 551-578.

Lister P. (1992, July). A skeptics guide to psychics. Redbook, pp. 103-105, 112-113.

Little L. W., Greenberg I. (1991) Problem solving, critical thinking, and communication skills New York: Longman.

Lochhead J. Clement J. (Eds.). (1979). Cognitive process instruction: Research on teaching thinking skills. Philadelphia: Franklin Institute Press.

Lockhart R. S., Lamon M., Gick M. L. (1988). Conceptual transfer in simple insight problems. Memory and Cognition, 16, 36-44.

Loftus E. F. (1979). Eyewitness testimony. Cambridge, MA; Harvard University Press.

Loftus E. F. (1980). Memory: Surprising new insights into how we remember and why we forget. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

Loftus E. F. (1993). The reality of repressed memories. American Psychologist, 44,518—537.

Loftus E. R, Ketchum K. (1994). The myth of repressed memory: False memories and the accusations of sexual abuse. New York: St. Martin's Press.

Loftus G.R., Loftus E. F. (1982). Essence of statistics. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.

The Long Term View. (1994. Summer). Has American education forsaken critical thinking? [Special issue]. (Vol. 2, No. 3). Andover: Massachusetts School of Law.

Lopes L. L. (1982). Doing the impossible: A note on induction and the experience of randomness. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning. Memory & Cognition, 8, 626-636.

Lorayne H. (1975). Remembering people. New York: Stein & Day.

Lorayne H., Lucas J. (1974). The memory book. New York: Stein & Day. (Also published in paperback by Ballantine Books, 1975)

Lord C, Ross L., Leppet M. (1979). Biased assimilation and attitude polarization: The effects of prior theories on subsequently considered evidence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 2098-2109.

Lowenfeld V. (1962). Creativity: Education's stepchild. In S., J. Parnes & H. F. Harding (Eds.), A source book for creative thinking. New York: Scribner's.

Luchins A. S. (1942). Mechanization in problem solving: The effect of Einstellung. Psychological Monographs, 54(6, Whole No. 248).

Macmillan Publishers (1989). Macmillan dictionary of quotations. New York: Author.

Maier N. R. F. (1931). Reasoning in humans II: The solution of a problem and its appearance in consciousness. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 12,181-194.

Mann L. (1972). Use of a «balance sheet» procedure to improve the quality of personal decision making: A field experiment with college applicants. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 2, 291-300.

Marsh J. G., Shapira Z. (1982). Behavioral decision theory and organizational decision theory. In G. R.Ungson, & D. N. Braunstein (Eds.), Decision making: An interdisciplinary inquiry. Boston, MA: Kent.

Matlin M. (1994). Cognition (3rd. ed.). Orlando, FL: Harcourt Brace.

Mayer R. E. (1987). Educational psychology A cognitive approach. Boston: Little, Brown.

Mayer R. E. (1992). Teaching of thinking skills in the sciences and mathematics. In D. F. Halpern (Ed.), Enhancing thinking skills in Ihe sciences and mathematics (pp. 95-116). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Er-lbaum Associates.

McCormick С. В., Levin I. R. (1987). Mnemonic prose-learning strategics. In M. A. McDaniel & M. Press-ley (Eds.), Imagery and related mnemonic processes (pp. 392-406). New York: Springer-Verlag.

McGuire W. /. (1981). The probabilogical model of cognitive structure and attitude change. In R. E. Petty, Т. М. Ostrom, & Т. С Brock (Eds.), Cognitive responses in persuasion. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

McKeachie W. J. (1992). Update: Teaching thinking. In D. J. Stroup and R. Allen (Eds.), Critical thinking: A collection of readings (p. 3). Dubuque, IA: Brown.

McKim R. H. (1980). Thinking visually: A strategy manual for problem solving. Belmont, CA: Wad-sworth.

McKinnon J. W., Renner J. W. (1971). Are colleges concerned with intellectual development? American Journal of Psychology. 39, 1047-1052

McTighe J. (1986). Thinking about adolescent thinking. The early adolescence magazine, 1,7-13.

Mednick S. A., Mednick M. T. (1967). Remote associates test: Examiners manual. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Meirovitz M. (1985). ThinkAbility. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Merron K., Fisher D., Torbert W. R. (1987). Meaning making and management action. Croup & Organization Studies, 12, 274-286.

Messer W. S., Griggs R. A. (1989). Student belief and involvement in the paranormal and performance in introductory psychology. Teaching of Psychology, 16(4), 187-191.

Miller J. £., Jr. (1972). Words, self, reality: The rhetoric of imagination. New York: Dodd, Mead.

Milne A. A. (1926). Winnie the Pooh. New York: Dutton.

Moore B. N., Parker R. (1994). Critical thinking (4th ed.). Mountain View, CA: Mayfield.

Morgan J. J. В., Morton J. T. (1944). The distortion of syllogistic: reasoning produced by personal convictions. Journal of Social Psychology, 20, 39-59.

Moss J. (1950). How to win at poker. Garden City, NY: Garden City Books.

Mumford M. D., Gustafson S. B. (1988). Creativity syndrome: Integration, application, and innovation. Psychological Bulletin, 103, 27-43.

Munby И. (1982). Science in the schools. Toronto: University of Toronto.

Munson R. (1976). The way of words. Boston: Hough-ton Mifflin.

Myers D. G. (1995). Psychology. New York: Worth.

Mynatt C. R., DohertyM. £., Twewy R. D. (1978). Consequences of confirmation and disconfirmation in a simulated research environment Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 30, 395-406.

Narode R., Heiman M., Lochhead J., Slomianko J. (1987). Teachingthinkingskills; Science. Washington, DC: National Education Association.

National Commission on Excellence in Education. (1983). A nation at risk: The imperative for educational reform. Washington, DC: Author.

National Education Goals Panel. (1991). The national education goals report: Building a nation of learners. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

National Research Council. (1994). Learning, remembering, believing: Enhancing human performance. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

NeisserU. (1982). Memory observed: Remembering in natural contexts. San Francisco; Freeman.

Nelson Т. О. (Ed.). (1992). Metacognition: Core readings. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Nelson T. O., Narens L. (1990). Metamemory: A theoretical framework and new findings. The psychology of learning and motivation, 26, 125-141.

Neubert G. A., Binko, J. B. (1992). Inductive reasoning in the secondary classroom. Washington, DC: National Education Association.

Neustadt R. £., May E. R. (1986). Thinking in time: The uses of history for decision makers. New York: The Free Press.

Newell A. (1983). The heuristic of George Polya and its relation to artificial intelligence. In R. Groner, M. Groner & W. F. Bischof (Eds.), Methods of heuristics (pp. 195-243). Hillsdale, N1: Lawrence Er-Ibaum Associates.

Newell A., Simon H. A. (1972). Human problem solving. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Nickerson R. S. (1986). Reflections on reasoning. Hills-dale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Nickerson R. S. (1987). Why teach thinking? In J. B. Baron &. R. J. Sternberg (Eds.), Teaching thinking

skills: Theory and practice (pp. 27-37). New York: Freeman.

Nlckerson R. S., Adams M. J. (1979). Long-term memory for a common object. Cognitive Psychology, 11,287-307.

The nightly crime news. (1994, March 21). Newsweek, p. 71.

Nisbett R. E. (Ed.). (1993). Rules for reasoning. Hills-dale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Nisbett R. E., Ross L. (1980). Human inference: Strategies and shortcomings of social judgment. Engle-wood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Nisbett R. £., Wilson T. D. (1977). Telling more than we can know: Verbal reports on mental processes. Psychological Review, 7, 231-259. ' Nixon R M. (1962). Six crises, Garden City, NY: Dou-bleday.

Norman D. A. (1976). Memory and attention: An introduction to human information processing. New York: Wiley.

Norman D. A. (1988). The psychology of everyday things. New York: Basic Books.

Norris S. P. (1992). Introduction: The generalizability question. In S. P. Norris (Ed.), The generalizability of critical thinking (pp. 1-15). New York: Teachers College Press.

Norris S. P., Ennis R. H. (1989). Evaluating critical thinking. Pacific Grove, CA: Critical Thinking Press & Software.

Nutrition Action Health Letter. (1991, July/Aug) Eater's Digest, p. 13.

Oppenheimer J. R. (1956). Analogy in science. American Psychologist, 11,127-135.

Ortho Pharmaceutical Corp. (1979). The pill-After your doctor prescribes. ... Raritan, NJ: Author.

Orwell G. (1949). 1984. New York: Harcourt, Brace.

Osborn A. F. (1963). Applied imagination: Principles and procedures of creative problem solving (3rd rev. ed.). New York: Scribner's.

Osgood С. Е. (1953). Method and theory in experimental psychology. New York: Oxford University Press.

Oskamp S. (1965). Overconfidence in case-study judgments. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 29, 261-265.

Palincsar A. S., Brown A. L. (1984). Reciprocal-teaching of comprehension-monitoring activities. Cognition and Instruction, 1, 117-175.

Papanek V. J. (1977). Tree of life: Bionics. In S. J. Par-nes, R. B. Noller, &: A. M. Biondi (Eds.), Guide to creative action: Revised edition of creative behavior guidebook. New York: Scribner's.

Parducci A. (1968). The relativism of absolute judgments. Scientific American, 219, 84-90.

Park D. С (1992). Applied cognitive aging research. In F. I. M, Craik, & T. A. Salthouse (Eds.), The handbook of aging and cognition (pp. 449-494). Hills-dale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Parnes S. J. (1967). Creative behavior workbook. New York: Scribner's.

Parnes S. J., Noller R. В., Biondi A. M. (1977). Guide to creative action: Revised edition of creative behavior guidebook. New York: Scribner's.

Patterson M. E., Dansereau D. F., Wiegmann D. A. (1993). Receiving information during a cooperative episode: Effects of communication aids and verbal ability, Learning and Individual differences, 5, 1-11.

Paulos J. A. (1994, March). Commentary: Countingon dyscalculia. Discover, p. 30-36.

Payne I. W, Bettman J. R., Johnson E. J. (1993). The adaptive decision maker, Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

Pea R. D._t Hawkins J. (1987). Planning in a chore-scheduling task. In S. L. Friedman, E. K. Scholnick, & R. R. Cocking (Eds.), Blueprints for thinking: The role of planning in cognitive development (pp. 273-302). Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.

Peck J. (1986). Not killing is a crime? In B. Lown & E. Chazov (Eds.), Peace: A dream unfolding (p. 146). Ontario, Canada: Somerville House Books Ltd.

PellegrinoJ. W., Goldman S. R. (1983). Developmental and individual differences in verbal and spatial reasoning. In R. F. Dillon & R. R. Schmeck (Eds.), Individual differences in cognition (pp. 137-180). New York: Academic.

Perfetto C. A., Bransford J. D., Franks J. J. (1983). Constraints on access in a problem solving context. Memory & Cognition, 13, 24-31.

Perkins D. N. (1981). The mind's best work: A new psychology of creative thinking. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Perkins D. N. (1985). Postprimary education has little impact on informal reasoning, Journal of Educational Psychology, 77, 562-571.

Perkins D. N. (1986). Knowledge as design. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Perkins D.N.(\988). Creativity and the quest for mechanism. In R. J. Sternberg & E. E. Smith (Eds.), Psychology of human thought. New York: Cambridge.

Perkins D. N.. Lochhead J., Bishop J. С (Eds.). (1987). Thinking. The second international conference. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Pestel В. С (1993). Teaching problem solving without modeling through «Thinking Aloud Pair Problem Solving.» Science Education, 77(1), 83-94.

Phillips И. (1961). My best puzzles in logic and reasoning. New York: Dover.

Piper D. (1985). Syllogistic reasoning in varied narrative contexts: Aspects of logical and linguistic development. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 14, 19-43.

Pitt J., Leavenworth R. (1968). Logic for argument. New York: Random House.

Pious S. (1993). The psychology of judgment and decision making. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Pogrow S. (1992). A validated approach to thinking development for at-risk populations. In С Collins &: J. N, Mangieri (Eds.), Teaching thinking: An agenda for the 21 st century (pp. 87-101). Hillsdale, NJ; Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Poincare H. (1929). The foundations of science. New York: Science House.

Polya G. (1945). How to solve it: A new aspect of mathematical method. New York: Doubleday.