Materials and apparatus
Psychometric tests
The participants completed three spanish versions of three psychometric ability tests: DAT-VR, PMA-V and PMA-R
2) Gernsbacher?s Battery Comprehension
The spanish version of the Battery was presented on a DX-486 computer using a computer programme elaborated by Manuel de Vega, of the University of La Laguna (Spain). The programme presents 4 narrative texts with times of exposition on the screen of 3,5 seconds for each sentence. Subjects read sentences that were presented sentence-by-sentence on the computer monitor. After the last sentence of each story disappeared, a test of five alternativequestions about each experimental text appeared. The times of presentation of each question about the story were of 20 seconds. The subjects? task was to select as rapidly and accurately as possible the correct alternative that had occurred in the text they had just finished reading. Finally, the programme presented the next text 15 seconds after the final response of the subject.
The programme registered both the correct responses and the reaction times of the participants to the questions about the stories.
Selection task
Each subject received three rules, with the following types of content: abstract, thematic-permission and thematic-obligation. Half of the subjects received true-false instructions of the rule and the other half violation instructions. The test booklets were used in previous investigations (Martín, 1996; Valiña, Seoane, Ferraces & Martín, 1996). The information for each of the three tasks was as follows:
a) Abstract selection task. "If a Wasit card has an A on one side, then it must have a 3 on the other". The four cards presented to the subjects were: "A", "K", "3" and "7".
b) Thematic-permission. In this rule a law was expressed; therefore it is similar to permission. The rule was: "If a person is more than 18 years old, then he has the right to vote". The four cards said: "20 years old", "16 years old", "you have the right to vote" and "you do not have the right to vote".
c) Thematic- obligation. The rule expressed a traffic regulation: "If a person rides a motorbike, then they must wear a helmet". The four cards that were represented were: "motorbike", "car", "helmet" and "cap".
The instructions were used previously (Chrotowski & Griggs, 1985; Yachanin, 1986; Valiña, Seoane, Ferraces & Martín, 1995, 1996). In the true-false version, the instructions were:
"Your task consists of selecting cards and only those that must be turned over to decide if the rule is true or false (select those cards which you consider necessary to turn over to check if the person carrying out the experiment has lied or not in relation to the composition of the rule".
For the violation version, the instructions were:
"Your task consists of selecting only those cards that must be turned over in order to decide if the rule is being violated or not".
Two different versions were made for each of the types of booklets. In one of these the thematic versions were at the beginning, followed by the abstract rule and in the other the abstract version was included at the beginning. Additionally, the order of presentation of the two thematic versions was counterbalanced.
Procedure
Participants met in groups of up to 12 with two experimenters over 2 days. On the 1st day they received in the laboratory both the psychometric tests with conventional instructions and the spanish version of the Gernsbacher?s Battery Comprehension. Subjects were tested with each interacting on a separate microcomputer in the same laboratory.
On the 2nd day of the experiment, participants were assigned at random to one of two experimental groups: (1) true-false instructions and (2) violation instructions. Subjects were tested in groups of 12. Each subject received a booklet with instructions on the first page, followed by three selection tasks (an abstract one and two thematic selection tasks). The instructions were read to the subjects and questions were solicited to ensure that they understood the instructions. Finally, they were instructed to work at their own rhytm, without a time limit.
RESULTS
The analysis were carried out with the data from the 136 subjects, once those who had not completed the task had been eliminated.
First we performed ANOVAs to test the differential influence of rule content and instruction on the subjects? performance in the selection task (Wason, 1966, 1968). Other ANOVAs were performed for checking whether or not good and poor comprehenders sistematically differ in their performance in Wason?s selection task, and finally we performed analysis in order to provide a test of the relation among different measures in psychometric ability tests (verbal comprehension and reasoning), the computerised measure of comprehension skills and the subjects? performance in the experimental task of conditional reasoning.
1) ANOVAS
The logical and matching indices were calculated for each of the three tasks. Both indices vary between +2 and -2, according to Pollard and Evans (1987). In the logical index the p or not-q selection gave a mark of +1 and the not-p or q selection gave -1. In the matching index the p or q selection gave a mark of +1 and with -1 the not-p or not-q selection. ANOVAS 2 x 3 ( instructions x content) were made for each type of index, with the data from the 136 participants.
A) Logical index
For the logical index the principal effects of the content (F(1.82; 244.52)= 21.61; p < .0001; e = .912) and the instructions (F(1, 134) = 6.59; p < .011) were registered. In the thematic-obligation higher logical indices were obtained (M = .765), followed by the abstract version of the task (M = .449) and the thematic-permission (M = .154). Similarly, the logical indices were higher in those subjects who received violation instructions (M = .87) compared with those who received true-false instructions (M = .31).
Significant interactive effects have also been registered for instructions x content (F(1.82; 244.52) = 6.32; p < .003; e =.912). In the thematic-obligation task higher indices were obtained in those subjects who received violation instructions
B) Matching index
A significant effect was obtained with the instructions (F (1, 134) = 11.31; p < .001). Participants obtained higher matching index with instructions for checking the rule (M = 1.042) compared to those who received violation instructions (M = .58).
Similarly, significant effects were registered in the content (F (2, 268) = 25.64; p <.0001). Especifically, the highest matching index was obtained with abstract content (M = 1.11), followed by the thematic-obligation (M = .897) and the thematic-permission (M = .375). Abstract content differs significantly from the other groups (F(1,134) = 24.42; p < .0001) and similarly thematic-permission differs significantly from the thematic-obligation (F(1, 134) = 26.97; p < .0001) by orthogonal tests.
2) Three-way mixed ANOVAS
Because the central questions being addressed involve group differences, we performed three-way mixed analyses of variance, with group (good vs. poor verbal comprehenders / good vs. poor reasoners), instructions (violation vs. true-false) and content (abstract, thematic-permission and thematic-obligation) as factors, with repeated measures on the last factor.
In terms of differential analyses there were no differences in the logical and matching indices among good and poor verbal comprehenders (PMA-V & Gernsbacher?s Battery Comprehension) or subjects with high and low scores in the PMA-R, but there were significant differences among good and poor reasoners (DAT-VR).
The logical index was considerably better(M = 1.131) in the higher reasoning-verbal group vs. the group with low scores in the DAT-VR (M = .386). The differences were significant (F(1, 70) = 8.52; p < .005).
Similarly, for the matching index the interaction between group and instructions was significant (F(1,70)= 5.02; p < .028. There were no differences in the matching index of good reasoners in function of the experimental instructions, but differences in the group with low scores in the DAT-VR were found. Particularly, the poor reasoners obtained highest matching indices with instructions for checking the rule
3) CORRELATIONS OF THE EXPERIMENTAL TASK WITH THE PSYCHOMETRIC TESTS SCORES
We performed another analysis in order to provide a test of the relation among different measures in verbal and comprehension psychometric tests, the computerised measures of comprehension skills and the subjects? performance in the experimental task with both logical and matching indices. The analysis were carried out (a) with the data from the total of 136 subjects and (b) with de data from the two experimental groups (true-false instructions and violation instructions).
The results show for the total sample(N = 136) that: (a) the scores of the DAT-VR are related with the performance in Wason?s selection task with the abstract content (r = .317;p = .0001) and with the thematic-permission (r = .2656 ; p = .002) in terms of logical index and (b) there is a significant relation between scores in the DAT-VR psychometric test and the computerised measures of Gernsbacher?s Battery Comprehension (r = .1663; p = .05).
With the true-false intructions (N = 63) there was found a significant relation between scores in the DAT-VR and the logical index (r = .3524; p = .005) and the matching index (r = - .3779; p = .002) with the abstract content. There was also a significant relation between measures in the Gernsbacher?s Battery Comprehension and the logical index for this abstract content (r = .2862; p = .023).
With the violation instructions (N = 73) there was a significant relation between measures in the DAT-VR and the logical index for the abstract content (r = .2939; p = .012) and the thematic-permission content ( r = .4316; p = .0001).
CONCLUSIONS
From this study we draw the following conclusions:
1. A good predictor for performance in Wason?s selection task was the DAT-VR psychometric test
2. There are differences in performance among subjeects with high and low scores in DAT-VR. The logical index was considerably better in the higher reasoning verbal-group.
3. The matching index are higher in those subjects who received instructions for checking the rule in the lower reasoning verbal group. There are not differences for the subjects with high scores in DAT-VR
4. There are no differences in the selection task performance between groups with scores high and low in the PMA-V, PMA-R psychometric tests and the Gernsbacher?s Comprehension Battery
5. The highest logical index was registered with thematic-obligation content, followed by the abstract content and the thematic-permission content
6. The highest matching index was obtained with abstract content, followed by the thematic-obligation and finally the lowest matching index was obtained with the thematic permission content.
7. The logical indices are higher in those subjects who received violation instructions with the thematic-obligation content.
Acknowledgments
We especially thank Manuel de Vega for providing us with his Spanish computerised version of Gernsbacher?s Battery Comprehension
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