Old English literature. Folklore. “Beowulf”.

The old English language, also called Anglo-Saxon, was the earliest form of English. It is difficult to give exact dates for the rise and development of a language, because it doesn’t change suddenly; but perhaps it’s true to say that old English was spoken from about A.D. 600 to about 1100.

The people who inhabited the British Isles could not yet write (writing came much later, together with Christianity), but it does not mean, of course, that they were deprived of artistic gifts and talents, not only in handicrafts, but in verbal art. Speech is primary both in and individual and in a nation. From time immemorial people composed songs, legends, fairy-tales and riddles, passing them on from generation to generation by word of mouth. In these they reflected their joys and fears, their wisdom and history.

This historic stage of literary development is known as folklore, which can be found in practically every nations cultural development. Nobody knows the names of the authors (hence “folk” in the term), the time of creation is vague and can only be guessed from some details in the plot, before being written down, the story would exist in several variants, new parts might be added later. Legends and myths usually tell of strong noble heroes who struggle against evil forces (representing hostile dangerous nature).

As has already been pointed out, folk poems and legends existed in the oral form and had to be remembered as such. Thus, in folklore text there had to be some devices which would serve as aids to memory. These could be rhymes, repetitions of sounds and rhythmical pattern.

Although there must have been a great wealth of heroic narrative verse among the Celts and, later the Anglo-Saxons, very little has survived. There is only the great epic “Beowulf”, portions of other epics, fragments of battle pieces and a small group of dramatic poems. There is a good reason why so little of this poetry has come down to us. From the 7^th century, when Anglo-Saxon England was rapidly converted to Christianity, the only men who could have written it down were the priests. they, however, were only too anxious to rid the country of all pagan influences and saw no reason why they should transcribe poetry which was essentially pagan in spirit.

“Beowulf”, the oldest known English epic poem, the foundation- stone of all British poetry, is the greatest piece of literature of the Anglo-Saxons. It possesses all the features typical of folklore. Much that we would like to know about it. Lost in the distant past and will probably never be discovered. Who wrote it? When? Where? Scholars have found enough evidence in the poem itself to determine that it was probably composed sometime during the 7^th or the 8^th century. The author drew his story from old pagan legends brought over from the continent (there is no mention of England in the text). The scene is set among Geats or Jutes, who lived on the southern coast of Scandinavia, and their neighbours across the strait, the Danes.

The character of Beowulf seems to be a blending of a historical figure – he is believed to have been a nephew of the King of Jutes, and later the king himself – with various mythical heroes.

The theme is universal – the age-old story of a great leader who saves or tries to save a people in grave danger. The characters are all people of noble birth. Beowulf, strong fearless, an advocate of freedom and justice, typifies the Anglo-Saxon ideals of personal conduct. The villains are the fire-drake or dragon and the cannibal-ogre Grendel and his mother, a water-witch. The tone of the poem is dark, melancholy and austere. In simple, direct, majestic verse, a literary legacy from the earliest writers of English poetry, an exciting story of adventure and heroism is told.

Let us now turn to two extracts from this poem (in modern translation by S. Duncan Spaeth) which will introduce you into the atmosphere of the heroic past and give you a glimpse of what folk poetry was like. The first extract narrates of Hrothgar, king of the Danes and his beautiful palace, which was greatly envied by Grendel, a supernatural monster, a man-eater.

Another extract tells about Beowulf who, having heard about the deeds of the monster, decide to go and help his relative, the king, and his warriors.

Beowulf comes victor out of all the battles he has to fight, and his victory over the monsters symbolizes the triumph of man over powers of darkness, evil, and death.

Lecture 2.