TEXT 5. Grammar and Syntax

The second level of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is grammar and syntax. Whorf felt that grammar had an even greater influence than vocabulary. For example, it has been observed that in the Eskimo language there is a consistent use of the word "if" rather than "when" in reference to the future. Think of the difference between "When I graduate from college..." and "If I graduate from college..." In this example, "when" seems to indicate more certainty than "if." Linguists have associated the more common use of "if" in the Eskimo language with the harsh environment that Eskimos live in where life is fragile and there is little control over nature (Chance, 1966).

English word order is typically SVO. English places emphasis on a doer, on an action taker. Only about a third of English sentences lack a subject. In contrast, 75% of Japanese sentences lack a subject. For example, you are more like to hear "I brought my textbook with me" in the United States and hear "Brought book" in Japan. The subject is known by context. Similarly, if you have hiked for a day into a deserted canyon you might say to yourself "I feel lonesome." A Japanese hiker would say only "Samishii, " identifying the experience lonesome without the need to identify the subject. Yes, in English, we sometimes speak in abbreviated forms, but we're conscious of it being a shortened version of a more detailed statement. The Japanese speaker is not abbreviating; Japanese does not require the specification of a subject. Using the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, you can conclude that this difference is related to the contrast between an individualistic culture and a group-oriented culture.

Although not usually identified with the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, languages do differ in the average number of syllables that can be spoken in a minute. Most languages of the South Seas permit the speaker to deliver about 50 syllables a minute. The typical U.S. English speaker delivers 220 syllables a minute and the average French speaker 350. Some scholars suggest that the pace of life is related to how fast people speak.

Case Study: Arabic and the Arabian Culture

As a demonstration of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, you can use the following case study to learn about Arabian culture from the characteristics of the Arabic language that are presented. As you read this section, identify elements of Arabian culture that you see in the following description of the language.

Arabic is spoken in one form or another by more than 200 million people. Because Arabic is strongly interconnected with the religion Islam, the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis explains the critical importance of the religion to the culture. The Koran is the ultimate standard for Arabic style and grammar. Islam has had major effects on both written Arabic and the spoken language. Classical Arabic, the language of the Koran, is the accepted standard for the written language (Asuncion-Lande, 1983). As Islam spread throughout the world, so too did spoken Arabic, as all Muslims, regardless of nationality, must use Arabic in their daily prayers.

Like any language, spoken Arabic continues to evolve and does vary from country to country. In classical Arabic, the number 2 is ithnayn, but tween is used in Lebanon, itneen in Egypt, and ithneen in Kuwait. Perhaps because of the influences of the Koran, Arabic withstood Turkish-Ottoman occupation and colonial empires and changed less than would have been expected. Advocates of Arab unity continue to work to unify and purify the spoken language. Modern standard Arabic is used, for example, at Arab League meetings, in radio and television news broadcasts, and in books and newspapers. Nonetheless, English or French is still the second language in the region.

Arabic style attempts to go beyond reflecting human experience to transcending the human experience. As Merriam (1974) noted, Al-Sakkaki divided rhetoric into three parts: al ma'ani is the part dealing with grammatical forms and kinds of sentences; - al-bayan refers to modes for achieving lucid style and clarity of expression; and al-badi (literally "the science of metaphors") refers to the beautification of style and the embellishment of speech.

Skillful use of language commands prestige. Arabic vocabulary is rich. For example, there are 3, 000 words for camel, 800 for sword, 500 for lion, and 200 for snake. Translated into English, Arabic statements often sound exaggerated. Instead of "We missed you, " the statement may be "You made us desolate with your absence. " It is said that because of the love of language the Arab is swayed more by words than by ideas and more by ideas than by facts.

Arabic emphasizes creative artistry through repetition, metaphor, and simile in part because of the poetic influences of the Koran. The role that formal poetry, prose, and oratory play is missing today in Western culture. Westerners often find it difficult to locate the main idea of an Arabic message; Arabs often fault Westerners for being insensitive to linguistic artistry.

Arabic makes more use of paralanguage – pitch, rhythm, intonation, and inflection – than other languages. The language rhythm can be magical and hypnotic. Higher pitch and greater emotional intona­tion are natural to Arabic speakers.

Speakers of Arabic may talk with a lot of noise and emotion. The rhetoric of confrontation – verbal threats and flamboyant language – is common. What may appear to be a heated argument may just be two friends having a chat. A speaker of Arabic uses language as a mode of aggression. Such verbal aggression essentially diffuses and prevents actual violence.

It is said that when an Arab says yes, he means maybe. When he says maybe, he means no. An Arab seldom says no because it may be considered impolite and close off options. Instead of no, an Arab may say inshallah, or "if God is willing." Inshallah is used when mentioning a future event of any kind as it is considered sacrilegious to presume to control future events. To mean yes, one must be both repetitive and emphatic.

(Jandt F.E. Intercultural Communication // SAGE Publications, 1998. P. 183–185)