Content-based instruction

Content-based instruction (CBI) has been used in a variety of language learning contexts, though its popularity and wider applicability have the early 1990s. Numerous practical features of CBI make it an appealing approach to language instruction: In a content-based approach, the activities of the language class are specific to the subject matter being taught, and are geared to stimulate students to think and learn through the use of the target language. Such an approach lends itself quite naturally to the integrated teaching of the four traditional language skills. For example, it employs authentic reading materials which require students not only to understand information but to interpret and evaluate it as well. It provides a forum in which students can respond orally to reading and lecture materials. It recognizes that academic writing follows from listening and reading requires students to synthesize facts and ideas from multiple sources as preparation for writing. In this approach, students are exposed to study skills and learn a variety of language skills which prepare them for the range of academic tasks they will encounter

In content-based instruction, students practice all the language skills in a highly integrated, communicative fashion while learning content such as science, mathematics, and social studies. Content-based language instruction is valuable at all levels of proficiency, but the nature of the content might differ by proficiency level. For beginners, the content often involves basic social and interpersonal communication skills, but past the beginning level, the content can become increasingly academic and complex. The Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach (CALLA), created by Chamot and O'Malley shows how language learning strategies can be integrated into the simultaneous learning of content and language.

2.At least three general models of content-based language instruction exist: theme-based, adjunct, and sheltered .The theme-based model integrates the language skills into the study of a theme. The theme must be very interesting to stu­dents and must allow a wide variety of language skills to be practiced, always in the service of com­municating about the theme. This is the most useful and widespread form of content-based instruc­tion, and it is found in many innovative ESL and EFL textbooks. In the adjunct model, language and content courses are taught separately but are carefully coordinated. In the sheltered model, the subject matter is taught in simplified English tailored to students' English proficiency level.

There are at least two approaches to content-based instruction: cognitive and integrated.

According to current developments in cognitive psychology, information is stored in memory in two forms: declarative knowledge, i.e., what we know about a given topic, and procedural knowledge, i.e., what we know how to do.

In the cognitive approach model the first component is a content-based curriculum, which, in Mohan’s words, in “helping students use language to learn requires us to look beyond the language domain to all subject areas and beyond the language learning to education in general”. A content-based curriculum is more interesting to many students than language classes that focus on language alone and are not challenging from an academic point of view. With CLLA (Cognitive Language Learning Approach), students can use English to solve problems and develop concepts that are appropriate for their grade and achievement level.

The second component of the model is English language development that provides students with practice in using English as a tool for learning academic subject matter. Cummins indicates that the language demands encountered by Low English Proficient students can be described by two dimensions: the contextual clues cues that assist comprehension, and the complexity of the task. CLLA helps contextualize language so that even cognitively demanding tasks become easier.

The third component is the instruction in learning strategies that rests on a cognitive approach to teaching. These strategies are fundamental if we accept Honeyfield’s idea that rather than simplifying texts (obviously after the beginning level) teachers should help intermediate and advanced students to “cope earlier with unsimplified materials by giving selective attention to material in accordance with realistic reading purposes, recognizing communicative structure, and others.”

3.The three major categories of learning strategies are:

1. Metacognitive Strategies: planning for learning, monitoring one’s comprehension and production, and evaluating how well a learning objective can be reached.

2. Cognitive Strategies: interaction with material by physical (grouping, taking notes, making summaries) or mental (making mental images, relating new information to previous concepts or skills) manipulation.

3. Social-Affective Strategies: interaction with others to assist learning.

Integrated approach focuses on three principles which apply to both the content and language teacher: the use of multiple media by teachers, the fostering of thinking skills in students, student-centered organization of the instruction.

Teachers should introduce information to the students not only through lectures and reading assignments but also using realia, graphs, demonstrations, and pre-reading and pre-writing strategies. This helps to place the information in a context comprehensible to students. Teachers need to pay attention to the content to be learned, the language skills required to learn it, and the reasoning abilities needed to manipulate it. Additionally, teachers need to reorient their instruction into a more student-centered design.

Whatever model to use in content-based instruction, it is very difficult for students to understand and to read long content texts. Oversimplification of the text where all students can read and understand it leads to the loss of content concepts. Besides, ELL cannot be expected to learn all content information through listening to lectures.

Therefore, the educators must find ways to make content comprehensible that is to make the texts and other resources materials accessible for all students, adapting them, so that the content concepts are left intact .

4.Task –based learning

Most practitioners would agree that TBI rests on three basic premises, though not all practitioners give equal importance to each. These premises hold that:

(1) Language learning does not proceed in a linear additive fashion but is a complex organic process (Long 1985; Lightbown 2000). In other words, teaching a discrete language item does not lead to immediate mastery of that item;

(2) "Language form is best learned when the learners' attention is on meaning" (Prabhu 1982, cited in Brumfit 1984). The effort put into "grappling" to understand and to engage with meaning will, in time, lead to the subconscious acquisition of form. This means that learners need a lot of comprehensible input, i.e. exposure to the foreign language being used in a variety of contexts.

(3) Learners need opportunities to use the target language for a real purpose in order to learn it (Swain 1985). This is sometimes referred to as the "Output Hypothesis." Output of course incurs in the context of interaction, which is also considered by many as necessary for acquisition as it provides opportunities both for negotiation of meaning (Long and Porter 1985).

Task based learning (TBL) as it is understood in teaching circles today, comes from a radical methodology first described by an educator in India. Prabhu’s ‘Communication Teaching Project’ proved to be very successful in primary and secondary schools in Bangalore. The children were taught English solely through ‘tasks’ without any kind of language focus. Today, this ‘pure’ form of TBL has, in many cases, given way to ‘watered down’ forms of varying degrees.Many people believe that learners learn better though taking part in meaning – orientated interactions.

5.A model for TBL

Pre – task Introduce topic Use activities to help students learn/recall useful vocabulary Set and explain task Students may hear a model of others doing the task

Thinking and planning time Students may use the time to prepare ideas and language that they need to do the task .Teacher monitors and facilitates, providing necessary language

Rehearsal Students may practice with a partner or in a small group, preparing for the ‘performance’, which will follow

Performance of the task Students perform the task in front of an audience (peers, school concert, radio show, video audience, etc). It is useful to record this stage

Feedback Students and teacher analyze task performance in terms of achievement and language

6.Task Based Learning versus Language Based Learning

What is the difference between Task Based learning and Language Based Learning? In Task Based Learning (TBL) language is learnt in the struggle to communicate (i.e. it is ‘messy’)A typical aim: to help Ss give a short talk recommending places to visit in their country.The task ‘drives’ the lesson

In Language Based Learning (LBL) language is learnt by building up discrete blocks (i.e. it is linear)A typical aim: to enable Ss to use should/shouldn’t in the context of giving advice.The language ‘drives’ the lesson .Various classifications of tasks have been put forward, both by researchers (e.g. Duff, (1993) and Piagеt al (1993) and practitioners (Prabhu 1987, Willis 1996). Here we will concentrate on some of those drawn up for pedagogic purposes, to help teachers design tasks for classroom use. These can be divided into three categories according to the basis upon which they were drawn up: (1) the gap principle, (2) reaching a decision or solution, and (3) cognitive processes.