Six Main Categories of L2 Learning Strategies

As seen earlier, L2 learning strategies are specific behaviors or thought processes that students use to enhance their own L2 learning. The word strategy comes from the ancient Greek word strategia, which means "steps or actions." A given strategy is neither good nor bad; it is neutral until the context of its use is thoroughly considered. What makes a strategy positive and helpful for a given learner? A strategy is useful if the following conditions are present: (a) the strat­egy relates well to the L2 task at hand; (b) the strategy fits the particular student's learning style preferences to one degree or another; and (c) the student employs the strategy effectively and links it with other relevant strategies. Strategies that fulfill these conditions "make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new situations". Learning strategies can also enable students to become more independent, autonomous, lifelong learners.

Yet students are not always aware of the power of consciously using L2 learning strategies to make learning quicker and more effective. Skilled teachers help their students develop an awareness of learning strategies and enable them to use a wider range of appropriate strategies.

However, teachers can actively help students "stretch" their learning styles by trying some strate­gies that are outside of their primary style preferences.

Six major groups of L2 learning strategies have been identified by Oxford (1990). Alternative taxonomies have been offered by O'Malley and Chamot (1990) and others.

Cognitive strategies enable the learner to manipulate the language material in direct ways, e.g., through reasoning, analysis, notetaking, sum­marizing, synthesizing, outlining, reorganizing information to develop stronger schemas (knowledge structures), practicing in naturalistic settings, and practicing structures and sounds formally.

Metacognitive strategies (e.g., identifying one's own learning style preferences and needs, plan­ning for an L2 task, gathering and organizing materials, arranging a study space and a schedule, monitoring mistakes, evaluating task success, and evaluating the success of any type of learning strategy) are employed for managing the learning process overall.

Memory-related strategies help learners link one L2 item or concept with another, but do not nec­essarily involve deep understanding. Various memory-related strategies enable learners to learn and retrieve information in an orderly string (e.g., acronyms), while other techniques create learning and retrieval via sounds (e.g., rhyming), images (e.g., a mental picture of the word itself or the meaning of the word), a combination of sounds and images (e.g., the keyword method), body movement (e.g., Total Physical Response), mechanical means (e.g., flashcards), or location (e.g., on a page or blackboard.

Compensatory strategies (e.g., guessing from context in listening and reading, using synonyms and "talking around" the missing word to aid speaking and writing, and—strictly for speaking— using gestures or pause words) help the learner make up for missing knowledge. Cohen (1998) asserts that compensatory strategies that are used for speaking and writing (often known as one form of communication strategies] are intended only for language use and must not be considered to be language learning strategies.

Affective strategies, such as identifying one's mood and anxiety level, talking about feelings, rewarding oneself for good performance, and using deep breathing or positive self-talk, have been shown to be significantly related to L2 proficiency.

Social strategies (e.g., asking questions to get verification, asking for clarification of a confusing point, asking for help in doing a language task, talking with a native-speaking conversation partner, and exploring cultural and social norms) help the learner work with others and understand the target culture as well as the language.