THE YEARS OF REVOLUTION

Population

The population of United Kingdom in 2003 was estimated by the United Nations at 59,251,000, which placed it as number 21 in population among the 193 nations of the world. In that year approximately 16% of the population was over 65 years of age, with another 19% of the population under 15 years of age. There were 95 males for every 100 females in the country in 2003. According to the UN, the annual population growth rate for 2000–2005 is 0.31%, with the projected population for the year 2015 at 61,275,000. The overall estimated population density in 2002 was 246 per sq km (637 per sq mi), but in England there were 371 persons per sq km (961 per sq mi), with 4,233 persons per sq km (10,968 per sq mi) in Greater London.

It was estimated by the Population Reference Bureau that 90% of the population lived in urban areas in 2001. The capital city, London, had a population of 7,639,000 in that year. Other major metropolitan areas in England were Birmingham, 2,271,000; Manchester, 2,252,000; Leeds, 1,433,000; and Liverpool, 912,000. Other large English towns include Sheffield, 503,000; Bradford, 451,000; Bristol, 372,000; and Coventry, 295,000. The major cities in Scotland are Glasgow (654,000) and Edinburgh (422,000). Belfast, the major city in Northern Ireland, had a population of 287,500; and Cardiff, in Wales, 277,000. According to the United Nations, the urban population growth rate for 2000–2005 was 0.2%.

Historically the territory of the UK is divided into four parts: England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. their capitals are London, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast.

ENGLAND

Of the four parts which make up Great Britain England is the largest, the industrial and most densely populated part of the UK. It occupies an area of 131,8 thousand sq. km. Over 46 million people of the population of the UK live in England.

The greatest concentrations of population are in London, Birmingham and northwest industrial cities. The coasts of England are washed by the North Sea, the Irish Sea, the English Channel and the Strait of Dover. No part of England is more than 120 kilometers from the sea.

It is Interesting to note that the sea has been important in the history of England. It was a good protection against the attacks of outside peoples. Fishing has always been an important industry, especially in the east. The sea also has a great effect on England’s climate.

There are many rivers in England. The longest is the and the most important is the Thames. The rivers are of great importance for communication and especially for carrying goods.

England is mostly a lowland country. There are upland regions in the north and the southwest, but the rest of England is almost flat.

Northern England, Midlands and Southern England – each part of England is different. The Lake District in Northern England with its lakes, mountains and valleys is a favourite holiday area. On either side of the Pennines the plains of Yorkshire and Lancashire stretch to the sea.

The wool industry is centred in Leeds and Bradford, the cotton industry in Manchester, iron ore goes to the steel, heavy machinery and shipbuilding industries of Newcastle and other cities. The industries of the Midlands, with Birmingham as its chief city, produce metal goods, from motor cars and railway engines to pins and buttons. The Midland plain makes good farm land.

In Southern England are found some of the oldest British settlements and traces of ancient monuments such as Stonehenge, which was built approximately 4000 years ago, and was used by ancient druids as a calendar to define the seasons and time.

Modern London is not one city that has steadily become larger through the centuries; it is a number of cities, towns, and villages that have, during the past centuries, grown together to make one vast urban area. London is situated upon both banks of the River Thames; it is the largest city in Britain and one of the largest in the world. Its population is about 7 million people.

London dominates the life of Britain. It is a big port and most important commercial, manufacturing and cultural centre. There is little heavy industry in London, but there is a wide range of light industry in Greater London. The City extends over an area of about 2.6 sq km. in the heart of London. About half a million people work in the City but only less than 6000 live here. It is the financial centre of the UK with many banks, offices and the Stock Exchange. But the City is also a market for goods of almost every kind, from all parts of the world.

The West End can be called the centre of London. Here are the historical palaces as well as the famous parks. Hyde Park with its Speaker’s Corner is also here. Among other parks are Kensington Gardens, St. James’s Park. In the West End is Buckingham Palace which is the Queen’s residence, and the Palace of Westminster which is the seat of Parliament.

The best known streets here are Whitehall with important Government offices, Downing Street, the London residence of the Prime Minister and the place where the Cabinet meets, Fleet Street where most newspapers have their offices, Harley Street where the highest-paid doctors live, and some others.

The name ‘West End’ came to be associated with wealth, luxury, and goods of high quality. It is the area of the largest department store, cinemas and hotels. There are about 40 theatres, several concert halls, many museums including the British Museum, and the best art galleries. It is in the West End that the University of London is centred with Bloomsbury as London’s student quarter.

The port of London is to the east of the City. Here were kilometers of docks, and the great industrial areas that depended upon shipping. This is the East End of London, formerly unattractive in appearance, but now changing because of the introduction of new industries and very expensive housing.

SCOTLAND

Status: Part of United Kingdom

First Minister: Jack McConnell (2001)

Land area: 30,414 sq mi (78,772 sq km)

Population (1996 est.): 5,128,000; density per sq mi: 168.6

Capital (2003 est.): Edinburgh, 663,700 (metro. area), 460,000 (city proper)

Largest city: Glasgow, 1,361,000 (metro. area), 1,099,400 (city proper)

Monetary unit: British pound sterling (£)

Languages: English, Scots Gaelic

Religions: Church of Scotland, Roman Catholic, Scottish Episcopal Church, Baptist, Methodist

Scotland is the most northern of the countries that constitute the UK. It occupies an area of 78.8 thousand sq. km. It means that Scotland takes up one third of the territory of the British Isles, its population is not very big. It is the most northern part of the island of GB and is not far away from the Arctic Circle. That’s why it is not densely populated: its population is a little over 5 million people. The Cheviot Hills mark the boundary between England and Scotland. Apart from this land link with England, Scotland is surrounded by sea.

Scotland includes the Hebrides off the west coast, and the Orkney and Shetland Islands off the north coast. It is bounded by the North Sea in the east.

Scotland is divided into three regions: the Highlands, which is the most northern and the most underpopulated area with a harsh climate, the Lowlands, which is the most industrial region, with about three quarters of the population, and the Southern Uplands, with hills, which border on England. The Highlands of Scotland are among the oldest mountains in the world. They reach their highest point in Ben Nevis (1343m). Many valleys between the hills are filled with lakes, called lochs. The best-known is Loch Ness where some people think a large monster lives. The most important city here is Aberdeen which is the oil centre of Scotland. Ships and helicopters travel from Aberdeen to the North Sea oil rigs. Work on an oil rig is difficult and dangerous.

Most of the population of Scotland is concentrated in the Lowlands. Here, on the Clyde, is Glasgow, Scotland’s biggest city. Shipbuilding is one of its most important industries; other industries are iron and steel, heavy and light engineering and coal-mining.

Scotland had been an independent state and was joined into the UK in 1707, after a long struggle for its independence. One of the things that people associate with Scotland is the kilt. The kilt is a relic of the time when the clan system existed in the Highlands. Everybody in the clan had the same family name, like MacDonald or MacGregor (Mac means ‘son of’). The clan had its own territory and was ruled by a chieftain. Each clan had its own tartan.

Edinburgh has been the capital since the 15^th century, when its fortified castle was the centre of Scotland’s resistance to its enemies. Edinburgh is the cultural centre of Scotland. It is associated with the names of George Gordon Byron and Walter Scott, Robert Louis Stevenson, Robert Burns and Arthur Conan Doyle, creator of Sherlock Holmes. It is also associated with the world-famous Edinburgh Festival of Music and Drama. The festival was first held in 1947 and has been held annually ever since. Its emblem is a thistle.

WALES

Status: Part of United Kingdom

First Secretary: Rhodri Morgan (2000)

Land area: 8,019 sq mi (20,768 sq km)

Population (1993 est.): 2,906,500

Capital and largest city (2003 est.): Cardiff, 676,400 (metro. area), 280,800 (city proper)

Monetary unit: British pound sterling (£)

Languages: English, Welsh

Religions: Calvinistic Methodist, Church of Wales (disestablished—Anglican), Roman Catholic

Wales is a peninsula washed by the sea on three sides: the Bristol Channel in the south, the St. George’s Channel in the west, and the Irish Sea in the north. Its territory is 20,8 thousand sq. km.

Geographically Wales may be considered part of highland Britain, the Cumbrian Mountains occupying most of the land. It is an area of high mountains, deep valleys, waterfalls and lakes.

Wales is a region of heavy rainfall brought by the prevailing west winds from the Atlantic Ocean. The valleys are sheltered by the high mountains from cold east winds. The climate is rather mild. Wales has never been densely populated. The Welsh have kept their own language, but English is spoken in town as well.

The chief economic activities of Wales include agriculture, manufacturing, and tourism and other service industries. The economy is largely integrated into that of the United Kingdom. About 80 percent of the land Wales is used for agricultural purposes. In general the raising of livestock, mainly beef and dairy cattle and sheep, is more important than crop cultivation. Crops include barley, oats, potatoes, and hay. Forests cover about 12 percent of the land, and government reforestation programs are gradually increasing the area. The fishing industry is concentrated along the Bristol Channel.

Wales is home to a diverse manufacturing sector. The refining of metal ore, much of which is imported, has long been a major industry. Almost all tin plate and much of the aluminum of the sheet steel produced in Britain are made in Welsh plants. Since the 1940s many new industries have been established. These include oil automotive parts. In recent decades, production of sophisticated consumer electronics, telecommunications equipment. And other high-technology manufactures has expanded. Milford Haven, in southwestern Wales, is a major petroleum-importing port and refining center.

Mining, once a mainstay of the economy, is no longer a major source of revenue or employment in Wales. The rich coal fields and iron or deposits of southern Wales helped fuel Britain’s Industrial Revolution. By the 1980s falling domestic demand and declining competitiveness in international markers forced most coal pits still operating in Wales to close. Welsh mines also produce limestone and slate.

NORTHERN IRELAND

Status: Part of United Kingdom

Languages: English, Irish (Gaelic) (both official)

Ethnicity/race: Celtic, English

Religions: Roman Catholic 88%, Church of Ireland 3%, other Christian 2%, none 4%

Literacy rate: 98% (1981 est.)

Land area: 5,452 sq mi (14,121 sq km)

Population (1998 est.): 1,688,600

Capital and largest city (2003 est.): Belfast, 484,800 (metro. area), 246,200 (city proper)

Other large cities: Cork, 193,400; Limerick, 84,900; Galway, 67,200

Monetary unit: British pound sterling (£)

Northern Ireland occupies the north-eastern part of Ireland, which is separated from the island of Great Britain by the North Channel. In the south-west Northern Ireland borders on the Irish Republic.

Almost all the area of Northern Ireland is a plain of volcanic origin, deepening in the centre to from the largest lake of the British Isles, Lough Neagh.

Northern Ireland has a typical oceanic climate with mild damp winters and cold rainy summers. Forests are rather scarce, moors and meadows prevail. The north of Ireland was heavily forested and lightly populated until the 17^th century, when it began to be farmed more intensively. Farms were small and incomes were supplemented by domestic production of linen. In the 19^th century Belfast and the surrounding area became a world leader in the factory production of linen. Developments in shipbuilding and engineering followed, and industrial enterprises expanded in the period from 1850 to 1914. These heavy industries fared badly after World War 1 (1914-1918 ) and never fully recovered. Linen and shipbuilding are now small concerns.

The economy suffered considerably as a result of the post – 1969 political violence. Since the 1950s Northern Ireland has been the poorest region of the United Kingdom. The economy has revived in recent year as major British retailing chains have moved into the province, and the tourism industry has begun to achieve its full potential. Most of Northern Ireland’s import and export trade is with Great Britain. The Republic of Ireland is the next most important trading partner.

Most farms in Northern Ireland are small. Historically they began as tenant farms owned by the landlords of large estates. By the 1920s most were owned by the farmers who worked them. Agriculture in Northern Ireland largely revolves around livestock production – cattle, pigs, sheep, and poultry are main animals raised. Barley is the most important crop, followed by potatoes and oats. Although 20 percent of Ulster was still virgin forest in 1600, these forests had all but disappeared by 1700. Reforestation projects were not pursued until after 1945.

Salmon and trout are farmed commercially in the northern estuaries of the Foyle, Bann, and Bush rivers, and eels are farmed on the north shore of Lough Neagh. Sea fishing – mainly for herring, mackerel, whiting, and cod – operates out of the southeastern villages of Kilkeel, Portavogie, and Ardglass.

CLIMATE

Great Britain enjoys the humid and mild marine West-Coast climate with warm winters and cool summers and a lot of rainfall throughout the year.

The prevailing winds blow from the south-west. As these winds blow from the ocean, they are mild in winter and cool in summer, and are heavily charged with moisture at all times. Therefore the wettest parts of Britain are those areas where high mountains lie near the west coast: the western Highlands of Scotland, the Lake District and North Wales. The eastern part of Britain is said to be in the rain-shadow, as the winds lose most of their moisture in their passage over the highlands of the west.

All parts of the British Isles receive rain at any time of the year. Still autumn and winter are the wettest seasons, except in the Thames district, where most rain falls in the summer half of the year. Oxford, for example, has 29 per cent of its rain in summer and only 22 per cent in winter.

As to temperature, Great Britain has warmer winter than any other district in the same latitude. It is due in large measure to the prevalence of mild south-west winds. Another factor is the Gulf Stream, which flows from the Gulf of Mexico and brings much warmth from the equatorial regions to north-western Europe.

INLAND WATERS

The rivers of GB are short, their direction and character are determined by the position of the mountains. Most of the rivers flow by the eastward direction since the west coast is mountainous.

Due to the humid climate and abundant rainfall, the water level in the rivers is always high. The rivers seldom freeze in winter, most of them remain ice free. Many of the rivers are joined together by canals. This system of rivers and canals provides a good means of cheap inland water transport.

The chief rivers of GB are: the Severn, flowing along the border between England and Wales, tributaries of which include the Avon, famed by Shakespeare; the Thames, which flows eastward to the port of London and some others. The swiftest flowing river in the British Isles is the Spey. Part of the border between Scotland and England is along the lower reaches of the Tweed, near which is made the woolen fabric that bears its name. The Clide in Scotland, which flows west across the Southern Uplands and on which the port of Glasgow is situated.

There are many lakes in GB. On the northwest side of the Pennine system lies the lake District, containing the beautiful lakes which give it its name. The Lake District is a mountainous area in the north-west of England, and it has some of England’s most beautiful scenery.

MINERAL RESOURCES

GB is rich in coal. There are rich coal basins in Northumberland, Lancashire, Nottinghamshire, South Wales, North Wales and Glasgow.

Among other resources, iron ores found alongside coal layers are of primary importance, but the iron content of most of the ores is very low.

There are tin and copper mines in Cornwall and Devonshire, copper and lean mines in England. Lead and silver ores are also mined in Derbyshire and Cumberland and Lancashire.

VEGETATION

Many parts of highland Britain have only thin, poor soils. As a result, there are large stretches of moorland in the Highlands of Scotland, the Pennines, the Lake District, the mountains of Wales and in some parts of north-east and south-west England. In most of these areas the farmers have cultivated only the valley lands and the plains where the soils are deeper and richer.

With its mild climate and varied soils, Britain has a rich natural vegetation. When the islands were first settled, oak forests have been cut down, and now woodlands occupy only about 7 per cent of the surface of the country. The most common trees are oak, beech, ash and elm, and in Scotland also pine and bitch. Most of the countryside England is agricultural land, about a third of which is arable, and the rest is pasture and meadow.

National Economy and Chief Industries of the UK.

ECONOMY

Wool and Cloth making Industry.Many landown­ers found that they could make more money from breeding sheep than from growing crops. They could sell the wool for a good price to the rapidly growing cloth making industry¹. They needed more land for the sheep to graze, so they fenced off² land that had always belonged to the whole villageThis process of fencing off common land is known as enclosures. Enclosures were often carried out against the law, but because magistrates were themselves land- lords, few peasants could prevent it. As a result, many poor people lost the land which they had farmed, as well as the common land where they kept animals.

The production of cloth, the most important of England's products, reached its greatest importance during the 16^th century. Clothmakers bought raw wool and gave it to spinners. The spinners were mostly women and children, who worked in their poor cot­tages for very little payment. After the spinners the wool was passed to weavers. When the cloth was ready, it was sold.

Coal and Steel.In the 16^th century people learned to burn coal in stoves instead of wood. Coal gave greater heat when burning. By using coal instead of wood fires, people were able to produce greatly im­proved steel. Improved steel was used to make knives and forks, clocks, watches, nails and pins. Birming­ham²,by using coal fires to make steel, grew in the 16^th century from a village into an important industrial city.

THE YEARS OF REVOLUTION

Industrial Revolution. By the early 18^th century simple machines had al­ready been invented. With the help of the machines, large quantities of simple goods could be made quickly and cheaply.

By the middle of the 18^th century industry began to use coal for changing iron ore into good quality iron or steel. This made Britain the leading iron producer in Europe. Increased iron production made it possible to manufacture new machinery for other industries. One invention led to another, and increased production in one area led to increased production in others. In the middle of the century other countries were buying British uniforms, equipment and weapons for their ar­mies. To meet this increased demand, better methods of Production were found, and new machinery was invented which replaced handwork. In 1764 a spinning machine was invented which could do the work of

several hand spinners The weaving machine invented in 1785 revutionized clothmaking. It al­lowed Britain to make cheap cloth, and Lanca­shire cloths were sold in every continent.

Factories supplied with machinery did not need so many workers as before, and that created a serious problem: a lot of workers became unemployed. Workers tried to join together to protect themselves against powerful employers. Riots occurred, led by the unemployed who had been replaced at the factories by machines. In 1799 some of these rioters, known as Luddites,began breaking up the machinery which had put them out of work. The situation in the country was very tense. People were afraid of a revolution like the one in France.