The water of the Earth

How much moisture is involved in the giant cyclical process of ocean – atmosphere land ocean?

What is the mechanism of this conveyor thanks which moisture gets from the ocean to the land and back?

It has been estimated that a total of 577000 cu km of water annually evaporates on our planet, chiefly from the surface of the ocean.

Hydrologists made several interesting discoveries: For instance, they established for the first time that there is another important link in the external rotation of moisture - the flow of moisture from the mainland's to the ocean through the atmosphere. It rums out that the sky is literally furrowed by powerful and deep rivers. Every year, for example, 4,000 cu km of water "flows" above the Volga area - this is tantamount to twenty rivers such as me Volga.

The data on the transfer of steam in the atmosphere can be used for calculating the water balance of the mainland's large river basins and for analyzing how water conditions are shaped over large territories.

Here are some calculations. According to the new calculations, the reserves of water on the planet total 1,386 million cu km; of which only 2,5 per cent is freshwater. The most sizable part of it is conserved in the ice covers of the Antarctic and the Arctic. Only 0,25 per cent of the reserves are to be found in lakes and only 0,006 per cent in rivers.

The bulk of water resources replenish their reserves at an extremely slow rate and cannot therefore be used without running the risk of upsetting the balance of nature.

Until recently water reserves on the planet were considered to be unlimited. Water seemed to be an inexhaustible gift of nature water has become a factor limiting the development of vast areas of the globe, it is not nature but man is to blame, Indeed, mankind now uses about 2,600 cu km - roughly 6 per cent of the annually renewable reserves of freshwater. It would seem that the reserves of water supply are great. Unfortunately, this is not so. The threat of a water crisis is becoming obvious. One of the main reasons is the growing pollution of surface waters.

The most realistic way to the solution of the water problem is through rationalizing the use of nature. The water of the planet can and must remain pure.

Hydraulics.

Hydraulics, as commonly understood and applied, is the science deeling with the action and use of the water. Water is the most common luguid. Water is the chemically pure state is not found in nature. Inland waters, which contain varying quantities of salt and mineral matter in solution, occur chiefly as streams, lakes, springs and underground supplies.

Hydraulics units. In all English - speaking countries, the three primary units are the foot, the pound and the second.

There are two important types of hydraulics units: unit of volume and a unit of flow. The most important unit of volume is the cubic foot, in the United States, the gallon /0,13 cu Ft/. The cubic foot per minute is the standard unit of flow, in the United States - the gallon per minute.

Properties of water. A fluid is a substance, which offers very little resistance to change of form and readily takes the shape a solid body – with which it comes in contact.

Compressibility. Though in common water is assumed to be incompressible, it is, like other liquids, slightly compressible. It is also perfectly elastic.

Viscosity. The ability of water to resist movement between its particles is termed viscosity.

It may be described as thick ness.

Adhesion and cohesion cause water to rise above the outside level.

Ground Water.

Ground water is water contained underground in the interstices of soil and rock. When ram falls on the earth some evaporates, some is absorbed by planets, some runs off in streams and the remainder sinks into the earth to become ground water.

The amount that enters the ground depends on various factors: rain falling on loose soil sinks immediately; rain falling on clay either lies on the surface and evaporates or runs off; on step slopes run off will exceed absorption. Ground water exists everywhere in the earth's crust, generally not much deeper than about a mile.

The upper surface of this water is known as the water table. The height of the water table varies between wet and dry seasons and between humid and arid regions. In deserts the water table may be hundreds of feet below the surface.

The region that is known as the zone of fluctuation. This zone through which the water table fluctuation is the place where decomposition of rock is most active.

The water table rises to higher levels underneath the hills and slopes to lower levels in the valleys, where it may appear on the surface in the form of springs, rivers, bogs and lakes.

This ground water acts directly by taking into solution the soluble minerals (process of solution) and by adding molecules of water to the other minerals (process of hydration) and indirectly by bringing carbon dioxide to be combined with some of the elements in solution, such as calcium, to from carbonates (process of carbonation). Oxygen readily unites with most elements and this combination is made when water is present. As a result we get oxides and hydrated oxides (process of oxidation).

Water in Moscow.

Every day Moscow consumes about six million cubic metres of water. This amounts to about 700 litres per capita and is more than in any other city anywhere of equal size.

As far as Bacteriological standards are concerned, water standards are three times stricter than elsewhere. Moscow water is ozonized and tastes like pure-spring water.

What do Moscow factories consume?

Most Moscow factories now have a water technology employing used water. But to replenish the stocks, fresh water is stile being consumed. Soon the «leakage» in this direction will be halted. The first section of an industrial main is now in service, and the second is being built. In the space of the next few years all industrial enterprises in Moscow will be switched onto recycled water.

The purity of Moscow water depends to a great extent on the standards of distillation of industrial an domestic discharge and on how clean the city's rivers – the main source of fresh water - are. Since 1974 not a single cubic metre of technically polluted discharge has reached the Moskva River. The capacity of the distillation equipment is a million cubic metres greater than the current city requirements there is no other analogue anywhere.

Moscow waterworks.

Every day Moscow waterworks treat and supply approximately four million cubic meters of water. The system incorporates five by – drocentres, four water treatment plants – the biggest in Europe, and more than 4,500 km of water mains 0. It takes 500 million kwh annually to pump the water and convey it to consumers.

The Moskva River’s total flow is 29 cubic metres per second. Of this the waterworks system consumes 24. The balance is obviously much too small to maintain the normal regiment of the river. To mend the situation, water is discharge into the Moskva River from the Khimki Reservoir at a rate of 30 metres per second.

Moscow waterworks services may be conventionally subdivided into three units: water pumping, treatment and distribution; the operation and maintenance of the network; overhaul and repairs.

To bring water to the high requirements of the State Standard for Drinking Water it is purified by means of chlorination, filtration and disinfections. Water quality is under the continuous supervision of hidrobiological laboratories.

The stringent hygienic protection of water supply sources helps us to maintain the State Standard. Before being piped into the distributive mains, water is subjected to yet another chlorination. In future chlorination will be replaced by ozonification, and experimentation in this field is now under way.

The average daily per, capital household consumption in Moscow is 360 litres. Considering the personal water consumption at the place of work, the total per capita rate is approximately 560 litres a day. It is intended to bring this average up to 1,000 litres. This will call for the construction of a new hydrosystem on the Vazuza River, a tributary of the Volga’s upper reaches. The new system will have a daily capacity of 1,7 million cubic metres of high – purity water, and bring the Moscow waterworks capacity up to a daily rate of 6,5 million cubic metres.

A project is being prepared at present to use telemechanics and computer techniques to automatize the operation of: the water supply system in Moscow.

Where Moscow’s water flows from

The Moscow Western Water – Supply Station provides water to one quarter of the city – from the southwest to Tushino (in the north). It is not far from Vnukovo Airport. The station pumps water from the Moskva River in the area of Barvikha, where a water intake complex is based. A part of the water is piped at a distance of 16 km to the southeast and goes into special chamber where all (or nearly all) natural odors are eliminated with manganese and activated carbon. There are several operators who monitor the odor elimination process by smelling samples of water.

The most important process, however, occurs when the water gets into the mixer. There it is chorinated (in order to kill off bacteria) and reagents precipitating chemical substances are added to it. After staying for a while in a setting basin, the water is filtered through layers of sand and coal dust. Then it is chlorinated again (so that the water does not spoil on the way to Muscovites’ water tapes) and channeled into closed reservoirs where the finally pure liquid is fed into the Moscow water supply system.

The water in the capital is considered to be among the best in Europe. This station is the most reminiscent of a swimming pool. There is no one there at all. Most of the operations are automated with just 25 people manning a shift.

The small chamber reminiscent of a recreation room is especially interesting: Rubber rugs, plastic flowers in pots, thousands of square meters of ideally clean ceramic tiled floors, the greenish mirror- like water surface, and the smell of chlorine. In the middle of the chamber, there is a small fountain surrounded by plastic plants; on the sides, there are square illuminated port- holes behind which small waterfalls can be seen. There is the place where the water is subjected to the final- visual- control check, for transparency.

The station director Oleg Baburov believes that Muscovites will not start saving water until a water meter is installed on each tap.

Water: Pay More, Use Less.

One of the hottest issues at the second international congress entitled "Water: Ecology and Technology", held in Moscow, was the economics of water resources. Moscow uses more water and its residents have grown pretty wasteful with this precious resource.

Meteorologists are forecasting a cold winter without much snow, which is bad news for the reservoirs that supply water to the capital.

If the forecast does come true, then by the end of winter Moscow could very well have a shortage of drinking water. Stanislav Khramenkov, the director of Mosvodokanal, is convinced that water supply to plants and factories and the general population will continue uninterrupted, the problem is that the less water in the reservoirs, the dirtier it is and the more complicated and expensive it is to purify it. Furthermore, unlike many other cities. Moscow is almost completely dependent on surface water sources, for almost no underground sources have been developed. The only thing that might save the day is it water is sold at what it really costs. The Moscow government is currently examining the issue of introducing a staggered water rate increase, first by 20 %, and then more. Officials have also decided to start saving water, although for now they aren't talking about putting water meters in every apartment. Instead, what they have in mind is equipping apartments, public buildings and offices with devices that would physically ration their water supply.

These devices were widely featured at an exhibition that coincided with the water economics congress. The item that drew the most interest was a ceramic tap that these gadgets will give you worry - free service for up to 20 years and that they can be attached to any tap. These devices are also cheap.

Another energy - saving idea is a regulator that fixes a certain limit on the water pressure, so that you wont be able to turn your water on full Blast.

Roskomvod (Russia's state water committee) is hoping to introduce paid water consumption as early as this year. The problem is that the biggest leaks are in the pipes and sewer systems; where wear - and -tear levels approach 50-70 percent The money is needed right now, but the city budget can't cover the costs, and investors are in no hurry to help, either, because it isn't a very profitable business - they might never see the dividends. So we, the consumers, are the city's last hope. We're the ones who will have to cough up the cash.

How can the Aral Sea be saved?

The gradual disappearance of the Aral Sea is one of our gravest ecological problems. Its level is now 11 metres lower then it used to be,while the sea itself has retreated 15 to 65 km from its former shores. It now has 60 per cent less water, and every litres of this water contains as much as 25 grammes of salt. According to same forecasts the sea will disappear by 2010 entirely.

The cause is a senseless overuse of water. The irrigated area in the sea's basin has grown to more then 6,8 million hectares ,which has resulted in a dwindling of the annual flow of the Amudarya down to 1-2 cu km per year and that of the Syrdarya to nought. Cotton has become virtually the only crop grown in Uzbekistan and in addition to billions of rubes has swallowed the waters of the Aral as well.

What can be done to correct the situation? This question was discussed at a press conference in Alma-Ata.

Its sponsor is a new public organization – Committee to save the Aral Sea and Lake Balkhash (the situation is unfavorable at the latter area, too). Among its members are about 80 writers, scientists, heads of ministries and department of Kazakhstan. Who was to blame for this neglet of the sea and the lake?

Why was the unnecessary Grand Alma-Ata Canal built in defiance of public opinion?

It was found out that a reconstruction of cotton may release up to 40 cu km of water. The other version is to stop planting cotton altogether for a year and return water to the sea. There are other projects, too.

Until calculations are made and the matter discussed, the public, in its own way, is expressing concern for the latter of the reservoirs. Account # 1700979 was opened at the State Bank. Money from this account will be sent to save them. Among those,who are making a contribution ,are writer Chingiz Aitmatov, poet Yevgey Yevtushenko and other. Entire organizations and enterprises are joining this movement.