French Borrowings

French borrowings make one of the largest layers of modern English word stock. At different estimates their total varies from 40 to 55 per cent of the whole vocabulary. And а great part of these words came to the English language in the 13^th - 14^th centuries. French borrowings of this period resulted from the Norman conquest which affirmed the French language as the language of the ruling class. In accordance with this many French borrowings are words which reflect the activities of the Norman aristocracy. Such words are divided into several semantic groups.

1. State and state administration: government, parliament, counsel, assembly, authority, office, power, baron, count, duke, duchess, prince, royal, feudal.

2. Court of justice: court, justice, jury, prison, crime, acquit, sentence, penalty, defendant, guilt.

3. Military life: war, battle, army, regiment, general, captain, lieutenant, victory.

4. Church life: religion, parish, altar, Bible, paradise, saint, vice, virtue, divine, clergy.

5. Amusements: leisure, pleasure, sport, tournament, dance, cards, feast, joy.

There are also other groups of French borrowings in modern English. Some of them are rather small. They may include not more than half a dozen of words (or even less), but these words are also suggestive of French habits or French innovations.

Thus, migrants from Normandy preferred to settle in towns not in villages. They started their business in new places and called their professions by their French names. That is why many town professions in the English language are denoted by words of French origin: butcher, painter, hatter, grocer, tailor. The professions spread in the countryside retain their English names (smith, miller, shepherd) because village population was almost purely English.

The forms of direct address sir and madam also came from the French language in the ME period. Alongside the words like pardon, excuse, please they function today as forms of etiquette.

Other words that reflect the Norman way of life or Norman innovations are found in the following groups.

· Words denoting articles of clothes: dress, costume, coat, collar, fur, garment.

· Words denoting pieces of art and architecture: art, colour, image, figure, temple, palace, column, pillar.

· Words denoting meals and dishes: dinner, supper, soup, pastry, roast.

It is interesting to note that unlike dinner and supper the word breakfast is of Germanic origin. A probable explanation might also be found in the Norman way of life. The French nobility got up late when the time of breakfast had passed.

It must also be noted that lots of French borrowings have no connections with the activities of French aristocracy, French innovations or French habits. These are words belonging to different semantic fields used in everyday communication: advice, flower, travel, treasure, chance, river, mountain, enter, envy, obey, eager, firm, sure, very, etc.

The infiltration of French words into the English language gave rise to pairs of synonyms. One of such synonyms descended from OE, the other came from the French language.

In many cases borrowed words established their position in the English language by ousting their native synonyms: the French word river replaced OE ēa the word mountain ousted OE berg, the word army replaced OE fird.

If both of the synonyms survived in the language they developed different meanings, or different stylistic colouring. Such French words as commence, vessel, existence belong to the bookish style while their English synonyms begin, ship, life are neutral.

In some cases distinctions between French and English synonyms are motivated by social stratification of medieval England. The Norman nobility could afford expensive clothes, expensive food, expensive furniture. Hence French words like table, chair denote elaborate articles. In earlier times such things could be afforded only by wealthy Normans. English words like board and stool denote plain pieces of furniture. In medieval England they were found in peasant’s thresholds.

A classical example of such distinctions is provided by the English words cow, calf, swine, sheep on the one hand and French words beef, veal, pork, mutton on the other hand. Words of native origin denote living animals, as it is the Anglo-Saxon peasants who were engaged in breeding them. The French words came to denote flesh of these animals because the French aristocracy dealt with the animals only when they were served as dishes.