Ïîä ðåäàêöèåé Â. È. Êóïöîâà

 

Ðåêîìåíäîâàíî Ãîñóäàðñòâåííûì êîìèòåòîì ÐÔ
ïî âûñøåìó îáðàçîâàíèþ â êà÷åñòâå ó÷åáíîãî ïîñîáèÿ
äëÿ ñòóäåíòîâ âûñøèõ ó÷åáíûõ çàâåäåíèé

 

ÀÑÏÅÊÒ ÏÐÅÑÑ

Ìîñêâà

 

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Ñîäåðæàíèå

 

ÐÀÇÄÅË I................................................................................................................................... 5

I. Îáðàç íàóêè........................................................................................................................... 6

1. ×òî òàêîå íàóêà?..................................................................................................................................................... 6

2. Öåëü íàóêè................................................................................................................................................................. 6

3. ×òî ïðîèçâîäèò íàóêà?.......................................................................................................................................... 7

4. Íàóêà êàê ïðîöåññ ïîçíàíèÿ............................................................................................................................. 11

5. Çíàíèå î ÷åì?......................................................................................................................................................... 17

6. Íàóêà êàê ñîöèàëüíûé èíñòèòóò...................................................................................................................... 18

7. Ïåðñïåêòèâû ðàçâèòèÿ íàóêè............................................................................................................................. 22

II. Ïðîáëåìà âîçíèêíîâåíèÿ íàóêè..................................................................................... 27

1. Äàòà è ìåñòî ðîæäåíèÿ íàóêè........................................................................................................................... 28

2. Ìèô. Òåõíîëîãèÿ. Íàóêà.................................................................................................................................... 30

3. Ïðîáëåìà «åâðîïîöåíòðèçìà».......................................................................................................................... 33

4. Íà ãðåáíå «ñîöèàëüíîé âîëíû»........................................................................................................................ 35

5. Èç ïëåíà âðåìåíè.................................................................................................................................................. 38

III. «Áîëüøàÿ íàóêà»............................................................................................................. 40

1. Îñîáåííîñòè ñîâðåìåííîé íàóêè..................................................................................................................... 40

2. ÍÀÓÊÀ È ÎÁÙÅÑÒÂÎ....................................................................................................................................... 42

IV. ÎÁÙÅÑÒÂÎ È ÍÀÓ×ÍÎ-ÒÅÕÍÈ×ÅÑÊÈÉ ÏÐÎÃÐÅÑÑ......................................... 46

1. ÒÅÕÍÎËÎÃÈ×ÅÑÊÈÅ ÐÅÂÎËÞÖÈÈ Â ÈÑÒÎÐÈÈ ×ÅËÎÂÅ×ÅÑÒÂÀ................................................ 46

2. ÒÐÈ ÒÈÏÀ ÎÁÙÅÑÒÂÀ...................................................................................................................................... 47

3. ÊÎÐÅÍÍÛÅ ÈÇÌÅÍÅÍÈß Â «ÏÅÐÂÎÉ ÏÐÈÐÎÄÅ»................................................................................. 48

4. ÐÀÄÈÊÀËÜÍÛÅ ÏÐÅÎÁÐÀÇÎÂÀÍÈß ÂÎ «ÂÒÎÐÎÉ ÏÐÈÐÎÄÅ»........................................................ 49

5. ÂËÈßÍÈÅ ÐÀÇÂÈÒÈß ÒÅÕÍÈÊÈ È ÒÅÕÍÎËÎÃÈÉ ÍÀ ÆÈÇÍÜ ËÞÄÅÉ....................................... 51

V. ÂËÈßÍÈÅ ÍÀÓÊÈ ÍÀ ÐÅËÈÃÈÎÇÍÎÅ ÂÎÑÏÐÈßÒÈÅ ÌÈÐÀ............................ 54

1. ÎÒÍÎØÅÍÈÅ Ê ÐÅËÈÃÈÈ Â ÂÅÊ ÍÒÏ........................................................................................................ 54

2. ÏÎÒÐÅÁÍÎÑÒÜ Â ÄÈÀËÎÃÅ............................................................................................................................ 58

3. ÒÐÓÄÍÎÑÒÈ ÂÎ ÂÇÀÈÌÎÎÒÍÎØÅÍÈßÕ................................................................................................ 58

4. ÐÀÇÂÈÒÈÅ ÏÐÅÄÑÒÀÂËÅÍÈÉ Î ÌÈÐÅ È ÈÇÌÅÍÅÍÈÅ «ÌÎÄÅËÅÉ» ÁÎÃÀ................................ 60

5. ÑÎÂÐÅÌÅÍÍÛÅ ÒÅÎËÎÃÈ×ÅÑÊÈÅ ÊÎÍÖÅÏÖÈÈ ÐÀÇÂÈÒÈß ÌÈÐÀ È ÐÎËÈ ÁÎÃÀ  ÍÅÌ 62

6. ÂÅÐÎßÒÍÎÑÒÍÛÉ ÌÈÐ È ÍÎÂÛÅ «ÌÎÄÅËÈ» ÁÎÃÀ.......................................................................... 64

7. ÂÎÇÌÎÆÍÎÑÒÈ ÈÍÒÅÃÐÀÖÈÈ.................................................................................................................... 67

ÐÀÇÄÅË II................................................................................................................................ 70

VI. ÍÀÓÊÀ È ÔÈËÎÑÎÔÈß.............................................................................................. 71

1. ÏÎÇÈÖÈß ÌÅÕÀÍÈÑÒÎÂ................................................................................................................................ 73

2. ÂÇÃËßÄÛ ÏÎÇÈÒÈÂÈÑÒÎÂ............................................................................................................................ 74

3. «ÊÎÏÅÐÍÈÊÀÍÑÊÈÉ ÏÎÂÎÐÎÒ» Â ÔÈËÎÑÎÔÈÈ................................................................................. 78

4. ÔÈËÎÑÎÔÈß ÊÀÊ ÀÍÀËÈÒÈ×ÅÑÊÀß ÄÅßÒÅËÜÍÎÑÒÜ.................................................................... 81

5. ÏÐÎÒÈÂÎÑÒÎßÍÈÅ ÏÎÇÈÒÈÂÈÇÌÓ.......................................................................................................... 83

VII. ÑÒÐÓÊÒÓÐÀ ÍÀÓ×ÍÎÃÎ ÇÍÀÍÈß.......................................................................... 85

1. ÝÌÏÈÐÈ×ÅÑÊÈÉ È ÒÅÎÐÅÒÈ×ÅÑÊÈÉ ÓÐÎÂÍÈ ÇÍÀÍÈß................................................................. 86

2. ÔÈËÎÑÎÔÑÊÈÅ ÎÑÍÎÂÀÍÈß ÍÀÓÊÈ...................................................................................................... 88

3. ÂÇÀÈÌÎÑÂßÇÜ ÐÀÇËÈ×ÍÛÕ ÓÐÎÂÍÅÉ ÇÍÀÍÈß................................................................................ 92

4. ÑÒÐÓÊÒÓÐÀ ÍÀÓ×ÍÎÉ ÄÈÑÖÈÏËÈÍÛ..................................................................................................... 93

5. ÕÀÐÀÊÒÅÐ ÍÀÓ×ÍÎÃÎ ÇÍÀÍÈß È ÅÃÎ ÔÓÍÊÖÈÈ.............................................................................. 97

VIII. ÔÓÍÊÖÈÈ ÍÀÓ×ÍÎÃÎ ÈÑÑËÅÄÎÂÀÍÈß.......................................................... 98

1. «ÇÍÀÒÜ, ×ÒÎÁÛ ÏÐÅÄÂÈÄÅÒÜ».................................................................................................................... 98

2. Ý. ÌÀÕ Î ÑÒÀÒÓÑÅ ÎÏÈÑÀÍÈß Â ÍÀÓÊÅ............................................................................................... 99

3. «ÎÑÍÎÂÍÀß ÌÎÄÅËÜ ÍÀÓ×ÍÎÃÎ ÎÁÚßÑÍÅÍÈß».......................................................................... 101

4. ßÂËßÅÒÑß ËÈ ÏÐÎÖÅÑÑ ÎÁÚßÑÍÅÍÈß ÄÅÄÓÊÒÈÂÍÛÌ?.......................................................... 103

5. ÊÀÊÎÉ ÂÈÄ ÎÁÚßÑÍÅÍÈß ÃËÀÂÍÅÅ?.................................................................................................. 105

6. ÏÎ×ÅÌÓ ÊÎËÎÊÎËÀ ÇÂÎÍßÒ ÍÀ ÏÀÑÕÓ?........................................................................................... 107

7. ÎÁÚßÑÍÅÍÈÅ ÁÅÇ ÏÎÍÈÌÀÍÈß. ÏÎÍÈÌÀÍÈÅ ÁÅÇ ÎÁÚßÑÍÅÍÈß........................................ 108

8. È ÂÑÅ-ÒÀÊÈ ÏÎÍÈÌÀÍÈÅ!......................................................................................................................... 109

9. «ÎÑÍÎÂÍÀß ÌÎÄÅËÜ ÍÀÓ×ÍÎÃÎ ÏÐÅÄÂÈÄÅÍÈß»........................................................................ 113

10. ÑÒÐÓÊÒÓÐÀ ÏÐÎÖÅÑÑÀ ÏÐÅÄÂÈÄÅÍÈß............................................................................................. 114

11. ÕÀÐÀÊÒÅÐ ÏÐÎÃÍÎÇÀ.................................................................................................................................. 115

12. ÎÑÍÎÂÀÍÈß ÏÐÅÄÂÈÄÅÍÈß................................................................................................................... 116

IX. ÎÑÎÁÅÍÍÎÑÒÈ ÏÐÎÖÅÑÑÀ ÍÀÓ×ÍÎÃÎ ÏÎÇÍÀÍÈß..................................... 118

1. Â ÏÎÈÑÊÀÕ ËÎÃÈÊÈ ÎÒÊÐÛÒÈß.............................................................................................................. 118

2. ÊÐÈÒÈ×ÅÑÊÈÅ ÀÐÃÓÌÅÍÒÛ...................................................................................................................... 123

3. ÎÒ ËÎÃÈÊÈ ÎÒÊÐÛÒÈß Ê ËÎÃÈÊÅ ÏÎÄÒÂÅÐÆÄÅÍÈß................................................................... 126

4. ÔÀËÜÑÈÔÈÖÈÐÓÅÌÎÑÒÜ ÊÀÊ ÊÐÈÒÅÐÈÉ ÍÀÓ×ÍÎÑÒÈ............................................................... 128

5. ÊÎÍÖÅÏÖÈß «ÒÐÅÒÜÅÃÎ ÌÈÐÀ» Ê. ÏÎÏÏÅÐÀ..................................................................................... 129

6. ÍÀÓ×ÍÛÅ ÐÅÂÎËÞÖÈÈ, ÏÀÐÀÄÈÃÌÛ È ÍÀÓ×ÍÛÅ ÑÎÎÁÙÅÑÒÂÀ........................................ 132

7. ÌÅÒÎÄÎËÎÃÈß ÈÑÑËÅÄÎÂÀÒÅËÜÑÊÈÕ ÏÐÎÃÐÀÌÌ..................................................................... 134

X. ÒÐÀÄÈÖÈÈ È ÍÎÂÀÖÈÈ Â ÐÀÇÂÈÒÈÈ ÍÀÓÊÈ.................................................... 138

1. ÒÐÀÄÈÖÈÎÍÍÎÑÒÜ ÍÀÓÊÈ È ÂÈÄÛ ÍÀÓ×ÍÛÕ ÒÐÀÄÈÖÈÉ........................................................ 139

2. ÒÐÀÄÈÖÈÈ È ÍÎÂÀÖÈÈ................................................................................................................................ 148

3. ÍÎÂÀÖÈÈ È ÂÇÀÈÌÎÄÅÉÑÒÂÈÅ ÒÐÀÄÈÖÈÉ...................................................................................... 153

XI. ÍÀÓ×ÍÛÅ ÐÅÂÎËÞÖÈÈ.......................................................................................... 161

1. ÍÎÂÛÅ ÒÅÎÐÅÒÈ×ÅÑÊÈÅ ÊÎÍÖÅÏÖÈÈ................................................................................................. 162

2. ÍÎÂÛÅ ÌÅÒÎÄÛ ÈÑÑËÅÄÎÂÀÍÈß......................................................................................................... 164

3. ÎÒÊÐÛÒÈÅ ÍÎÂÛÕ «ÌÈÐλ..................................................................................................................... 166

4. ÐÅÂÎËÞÖÈÈ È ÒÐÀÄÈÖÈÈ.......................................................................................................................... 169

XII. ÏÐÈÐÎÄÀ ÔÓÍÄÀÌÅÍÒÀËÜÍÛÕ ÍÀÓ×ÍÛÕ ÎÒÊÐÛÒÈÉ............................ 171

1. ÄÂÀ ÐÎÄÀ ÎÒÊÐÛÒÈÉ.................................................................................................................................... 171

2. ÈÑÒÎÐÈ×ÅÑÊÀß ÎÁÓÑËÎÂËÅÍÍÎÑÒÜ ÔÓÍÄÀÌÅÍÒÀËÜÍÛÕ ÎÒÊÐÛÒÈÉ.......................... 173

3. ÃÅËÈÎÖÅÍÒÐÈ×ÅÑÊÀß ÑÈÑÒÅÌÀ ÊÎÏÅÐÍÈÊÀ............................................................................... 175

4. ÃÅÎÌÅÒÐÈß ËÎÁÀ×ÅÂÑÊÎÃÎ.................................................................................................................... 177

5. ÎÒÊÐÛÒÈÅ Ã. ÌÅÍÄÅËß............................................................................................................................... 182

XIII. ÐÅÄÓÊÖÈÎÍÈÇÌ: ÅÃÎ ÂÎÇÌÎÆÍÎÑÒÈ È ÃÐÀÍÈÖÛ................................. 187

1. ÑÒÐÅÌËÅÍÈÅ Ê ÑÈÍÒÅÇÓ........................................................................................................................... 187

2. ÓÑÏÅÕÈ ÐÅÄÓÊÖÈÎÍÈÇÌÀ........................................................................................................................ 188

3. ÊÀÊ ÎÁÎÑÍÎÂÛÂÀÅÒÑß ÐÅÄÓÊÖÈÎÍÈÇÌ?....................................................................................... 190

4. ÀÐÃÓÌÅÍÒÛ ÏÐÎÒÈÂ ÐÅÄÓÊÖÈÎÍÈÇÌÀ............................................................................................. 190

5. ÊÎÍÒÓÐÛ ÑÎÂÐÅÌÅÍÍÎÉ ÊÀÐÒÈÍÛ ÌÈÐÀ....................................................................................... 197

6. ÅÄÈÍÑÒÂÎ ÍÀÓÊÈ È ÅÅ ÌÍÎÃÎÎÁÐÀÇÈÅ........................................................................................... 199

XIV. ÈÄÅÀËÛ ÍÀÓ×ÍÎÑÒÈ............................................................................................ 200

1. ×ÒÎ ÒÀÊÎÅ ÈÄÅÀË ÍÀÓ×ÍÎÑÒÈ?............................................................................................................ 200

2. ÎÑÍÎÂÀÍÈß ÊËÀÑÑÈ×ÅÑÊÈÕ ÏÐÅÄÑÒÀÂËÅÍÈÉ Î ÍÀÓÊÅ...................................................... 201

3. ÔÎÐÌÛ ÊËÀÑÑÈ×ÅÑÊÎÃÎ ÈÄÅÀËÀ........................................................................................................ 205

4. ÎÑÍÎÂÍÛÅ ÍÀÏÐÀÂËÅÍÈß ÊÐÈÒÈÊÈ.................................................................................................. 212

5. Â ÏÎÈÑÊÀÕ ÀËÜÒÅÐÍÀÒÈÂ........................................................................................................................ 221

ÐÀÇÄÅË III............................................................................................................................ 227

XV. ÑÒÀÒÓÑ È ÏÐÎÁËÅÌÛ ÈÑÒÎÐÈÈ ÍÀÓÊÈ......................................................... 228

1. ÇÀ×ÅÌ ÍÓÆÍÀ ÈÑÒÎÐÈß ÍÀÓÊÈ?.......................................................................................................... 228

2. ÈÑÒÎÐÈß ÍÀÓÊÈ ÒÎÆÅ ÈÌÅÅÒ ÑÂÎÞ ÈÑÒÎÐÈÞ........................................................................... 229

3. «ÊÀÊ ÝÒÎ ÁÛËÎ?»............................................................................................................................................ 231

4. «ÏÐÅÇÅÍÒÈÇÌ» È «ÀÍÒÈÊÂÀÐÈÇÌ» - ÌÅÒÎÄÎËÎÃÈ×ÅÑÊÀß ÄÈËÅÌÌÀ ÈÑÒÎÐÈÊÎ-ÍÀÓ×ÍÎÃÎ ÏÎÇÍÀÍÈß.................................................................................................................................................... 233

5. ÎÒÊÐÛË ËÈ ÊÎËÓÌÁ ÀÌÅÐÈÊÓ?............................................................................................................. 234

6. «ÊÈÌÌÅÐÈÉÑÊÈÅ ÒÅÍÈ» Â ÈÑÒÎÐÈÈ ÏÎÇÍÀÍÈß.......................................................................... 238

7. ÒÎ×ÊÀ ÇÐÅÍÈß ÊÎËËÈÍÃÂÓÄÀ................................................................................................................ 239

8. ÏÐÈÍÖÈÏ ÄÎÏÎËÍÈÒÅËÜÍÎÑÒÈ Â ÈÑÒÎÐÈÊÎ-ÍÀÓ×ÍÎÌ ÈÑÑËÅÄÎÂÀÍÈÈ.................... 241

9. ÔÈËÎÑÎÔÈß ÍÀÓÊÈ È ÈÑÒÎÐÈß ÍÀÓÊÈ............................................................................................ 243

XVI. ÑÎÖÈÀËÜÍÛÅ ÀÑÏÅÊÒÛ ÈÑÒÎÐÈÈ ÍÀÓÊÈ.................................................. 247

1. ÄÈÑÊÓÑÑÈÈ ÈÍÒÅÐÍÀËÈÑÒÎÂ È ÝÊÑÒÅÐÍÀËÈÑÒÎÂ.................................................................. 247

2. ÎÁÙÅÅ ÎÑÍÎÂÀÍÈÅ Â ÏÎÇÈÖÈßÕ ÌÅÒÎÄÎËÎÃÈ×ÅÑÊÈÕ ÎÏÏÎÍÅÍÒÎÂ.......................... 249

3. ÅÑÒÅÑÒÂÅÍÍÎ-ÍÀÓ×ÍÎÅ ÒÅÎÐÅÒÈÇÈÐÎÂÀÍÈÅ È ÏÎÍßÒÈÅ ÑÎÖÈÀËÜÍÎÑÒÈ............... 251

4. ÌÅÕÀÍÈÇÌ ÄÅÉÑÒÂÈß ÑÎÖÈÀËÜÍÎÃÎ ÇÀÊÀÇÀ............................................................................. 253

5. ÔÈËÎÑÎÔÈß Â ÈÑÒÎÐÈÈ ÍÀÓ×ÍÛÕ ÈÄÅÉ......................................................................................... 254

6. ÐÀÇÍÎÎÁÐÀÇÈÅ ÔÎÐÌ ÑÎÖÈÀËÜÍÛÕ ÎÒÍÎØÅÍÈÉ Â ÈÑÒÎÐÈÈ ÍÀÓÊÈ............................. 257

7. ÌÈÊÐÎÑÎÖÈÎËÎÃÈ×ÅÑÊÈÅ ÈÑÑËÅÄÎÂÀÍÈß.................................................................................. 259

8. ÍÀÓ×ÍÎÅ ÑÎÎÁÙÅÑÒÂÎ............................................................................................................................. 261

XVII. ÎÁÙÈÅ ÌÎÄÅËÈ ÈÑÒÎÐÈÈ ÍÀÓÊÈ................................................................. 265

1. ÊÓÌÓËßÒÈÂÈÑÒÑÊÀß ÌÎÄÅËÜ.............................................................................................................. 265

2. ÍÀÓ×ÍÛÅ ÐÅÂÎËÞÖÈÈ Â ÈÑÒÎÐÈÈ ÍÀÓÊÈ...................................................................................... 271

3. «ÊÅÉÑ ÑÒÀÄÈÑ» ÊÀÊ ÌÅÒÎÄ ÈÑÑËÅÄÎÂÀÍÈß................................................................................ 283

ÐÀÇÄÅË IV............................................................................................................................ 292

XVIII. ÍÎÐÌÛ È ÖÅÍÍÎÑÒÈ ÍÀÓ×ÍÎÃÎ ÑÎÎÁÙÅÑÒÂÀ.................................... 293

1. ÍÎÐÌÛ È ÖÅÍÍÎÑÒÈ ÍÀÓÊÈ.................................................................................................................... 293

2. ÍÀÓÊÀ È ÖÅÍÍÎÑÒÈ ÎÁÙÅÑÒÂÀ............................................................................................................ 295

3. ÍÎÐÌÀÒÈÂÍÎ-ÖÅÍÍÎÑÒÍÀß ÑÈÑÒÅÌÀ ÍÀÓ×ÍÎÃÎ ÑÎÎÁÙÅÑÒÂÀ..................................... 298

4. Ó×ÅÍÛÉ È ÍÀÓ×ÍÎÅ ÑÎÎÁÙÅÑÒÂÎ...................................................................................................... 301

5. ÀÂÒÎÍÎÌÈß ÍÀÓÊÈ..................................................................................................................................... 303

XIX. ÈÍÑÒÈÒÓÀËÈÇÀÖÈß ÍÀÓÊÈ Â ÖÅÍÍÎÑÒÍÎÌ ÈÇÌÅÐÅÍÈÈ................... 306

1. ÑÒÀÍÎÂËÅÍÈÅ ÍÀÓÊÈ ÊÀÊ ÑÎÖÈÀËÜÍÎÃÎ ÈÍÑÒÈÒÓÒÀ.......................................................... 306

2. ÍÀÓÊÀ È ÈÄÅÎËÎÃÈß ÏÐÎÑÂÅÙÅÍÈß................................................................................................. 309

3. ÍÀÓÊÀ, ÒÅÕÍÈÊÀ, ÏÐÎÈÇÂÎÄÑÒÂÎ....................................................................................................... 310

4. ÏÐÅÂÐÀÙÅÍÈÅ ÍÀÓÊÈ Â ÏÐÎÔÅÑÑÈÎÍÀËÜÍÓÞ ÑÔÅÐÓ ÄÅßÒÅËÜÍÎÑÒÈ........................ 313

5. ÁÐÅÌß ÑÎÖÈÀËÜÍÎÉ ÎÒÂÅÒÑÒÂÅÍÍÎÑÒÈ....................................................................................... 316

XX. ÝÒÈÊÀ ÍÀÓÊÈ È ÎÒÂÅÒÑÒÂÅÍÍÎÑÒÜ Ó×ÅÍÎÃÎ........................................... 319

1. ÇÍÀÍÈÅ ×ÅËÎÂÅÊÀ È ÄËß ×ÅËÎÂÅÊÀ.................................................................................................. 319

2. ÍÎÐÌÛ ÍÀÓ×ÍÎÉ ÄÅßÒÅËÜÍÎÑÒÈ....................................................................................................... 320

3. ÝÒÎÑ ÍÀÓÊÈ...................................................................................................................................................... 323

4. ÑÎÖÈÀËÜÍÀß ÎÒÂÅÒÑÒÂÅÍÍÎÑÒÜ Ó×ÅÍÎÃÎ.................................................................................. 324

5. ÎÁÚÅÊÒÈÂÍÀß ËÎÃÈÊÀ ÐÀÇÂÈÒÈß ÍÀÓÊÈ È ÎÒÂÅÒÑÒÂÅÍÍÎÑÒÜ Ó×ÅÍÎÃÎ................. 329

6. ÑÎÖÈÀËÜÍÛÅ ÑÈËÛ È ÎÒÂÅÒÑÒÂÅÍÍÎÑÒÜ Ó×ÅÍÎÃÎ................................................................ 331

7. ÄÎËÆÍÀ ËÈ ÎÃÐÀÍÈ×ÈÂÀÒÜÑß ÑÂÎÁÎÄÀ ÈÑÑËÅÄÎÂÀÍÈÉ?................................................. 333

ÈÌÅÍÍÎÉ ÓÊÀÇÀÒÅËÜ................................................................................................... 337

ÏÅÐÑÎÍÀËÈÈ.................................................................................................................... 348

ËÈÒÅÐÀÒÓÐÀ...................................................................................................................... 389

 


 

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