Stylistic Semasiology Lexico-semantic Stylistic Devices

Figures of Substitution

HYPERBOLE

Hyperbole is a deliberate exaggeration of a certain quality of an object or phenomenon.

Assigned features. Hyperbole can be expressed by all notional parts of speech. The most typical cases of expression are: by pronouns (all, every, everybody, everything); by numerical nouns (a million, a thousand); by adverbs of time (ever, never). In Ukrainian the ways of expression are such: by pronouns (всі, все, весь, вся, всяк(ий), кожен, кожна, кожне); by numerical nouns (сотня, тисяча, мільйон); by intensifying adverbs (жахливо, страшенно, колосально); by adverbs of time, place (завжди, ніколи, всюди).

Hyperbole may be the final effect of other stylistic devices: metaphor, similie, irony.

Communicative function. Hyperbole mounts the expressiveness of speech.

Examples:

Mary was scared to death.

Sam would give the world to see Dave again.

I beg a thousand pardons.

Pete knows everybody in the town.

Every single rascal tries to cheat the public here.

It was so noisy inside that you couldn't hear yourself think.

А сома... сома мені самому доводилося бачити такого завбільшки, як комбайн! Тільки трохи довшого.

Він такий голодний, що коня з'їсть.

Таким поглядом можна вбити.

Я вас чекав цілу вічність. Ви завжди забуваєте про час і ніколи не поспішаєте. Вас лише за смертю посилати.

Тато ж тебе сто разів просив не робити з мухи слона, а ти все життяусе перебільшуєш.

MEIOSIS

This figure of quantity is opposite in meaning to hyperbole. Meiosis is a deliberate diminution of a certain quality of an object or phenomenon.

Assigned features. Meiosis underlines insignificance of such qualities of objects and phenomena as their size, volume, distance, time, shape, etc. The domain of meiosis is colloquial speech.

Communicative function. Meiosis makes speech expressive.

Examples:

There was a drop of water left in the bucket.

It was a cat-size pony.

August can do the job in a second.

The guy is so disgusting! He is a real microbe.

Можна ще крапельку супу?

Зачекайте хвилинку. Він пару секунд тому побіг до друга, що живе у трьох кроках звідси, і зараз повернеться.

LITOTES

Litotes is a specific variant of meiosis.

Assigned features. Litotes has a peculiar syntactic structure. It is a combination of the negative particle "not" and a word with negative meaning or a negative prefix. Such a combination makes positive sense: "not bad" means "good", "not unkind" means "kind", etc.

Litotes is used in all functional styles of English.

Communicative functions. Litotes extenuats positive qualities of objects or phenomena. It makes statements and judgments sound delicate and diplo­matic. It also expresses irony.

Examples:

After the brawl Julia was not dissatisfied with herself.

Martin is not without sense of humour.

The decision was not unreasonable.

The venture was not impossible.

John's behaviour was not disrespectful.

Він не якийсь там жалюгідний жебрак і не просить вас зробити неможливе.

Бачу, що ви обурені, і не без причини.

Не те, щоб він не знав можливостей свого бюджету, і не завжди ж був таким недалекоглядним, але цього разу вирішив запросити дружину до театру, оскільки не хлібом єдиним живе людина.

METONYMY

Metonymy is transference of a name of one object to another object. Metonymic transference of names is based upon the principle of conti­guity of the two objects.

Assigned features. As a rule, metonymy is expressed by nouns, less fre­quently – by substantivized numerals. That is why the syntactic functions and positions of metonymic words are those of the subject, object and predicative.

Classification. Metonymy may be lexical and contextual (genuine). Lexical metonymy is a source of creating new words or new meanings: table's leg, teapot's nose, a hand (instead of a worker), the press (instead of people writing for newspapers), grave (instead of death), the cradle (instead of infancy), etc. Such metonymic meanings are registered in dictionaries. It is obvious that lexical metonymy is devoid of stylistic information. Contextual metonymy is the result of unexpected substitution of one word for another in speech. It is fresh and expressive:

This pair of whiskers is a convinced scoundrel.

Communicative functions. Stylistic metonymy builds up imagery, points out this or another feature of the object described, and makes speech eco­nomical.

More examples:

The sword is the worst argument in a situation like that.

The other voice shook his head and went away.

The messenger was followed by a pair of heavy boots.

The fish swallowed her death and the float went down.

I wish you had Gary's ears and Jack's eyes.

Linda gave her heart to the grocer's young man.

Окуляри сьогодні були дуже прискіпливі: на зборах дивилися суворо як на молодий ентузіазм, так і на обачливу старість.

Язик до Києва доведе.

Нам треба більше робочих рук.

Чого ти, чуєш, розсівся перед моїми літами, перед моїм смутком і сивиною?

А повз неї тупали тисячі ніг, дихали тисячі грудей, ревіли баси і танцювали, як божевільні, дзвони.

Ø metonymy

· Metonymy can be seen as a specific kind of symbolism by which the most essential component of the subject is abstracted to represent it. This component acts as a single symbol for something larger and usually more complex.

· For instance, a crown is the most essential material component of the trappings of royalty, and so it serves well in representing the whole sys­tem of monarchy.

· Similarly, the stage is a material component of acting as a profession. This too serves to represent symbolically something abstract and dynamic.

· The 'cloth' symbolizes the religious profession, and the 'bar' represents the legal profession. Both these items are essential material objects and are used to refer to the abstract concept of a profession.

· In a statement such as 'Shakespeare depicts monarchs as human' the name is actually symbolizing the total collection of his works. This form of metonymy is useful as a very graphic kind of shorthand.

· This pragmatic explanation could also apply to the example of 'Whitehall announced today ...', although we could ascribe more political and even ulterior functions to this usage. [Remember, 'Whitehall' represents the civil service in the UK.]

· To refer to Whitehall as having issued a statement is to generalize the source of the communication. This may be in the political interest of the Establishment. It is a form of social control to promote an image of a corporate mass of civil servants, rather than suggesting that one per­son or even a small hierarchical group makes significant and powerful decisions.

· Whitehall as a material location stands for something abstract, in this case an institution. This symbolic use depersonalises the source of the statement, perhaps thereby giving it more authority.

· This political interpretation is merely speculation, but the mechanical anal­ysis of metonymy as a symbolic device stands on firmer ground.

· [Pedants who collect terms enjoy distinguishing metonymy from synechdoche, which is its figurative bedfellow.]

SYNECDOCHE

This variety of metonymy is realized in two variants. The first variant is naming the whole object by mentioning part of it:

Caroline lives with Jack under the same roof (under the same roof =in the same house).

The second variant of synecdoche is using the name of the whole ob­ject to denote a constituent part of this object:

The hall applauded (the hall = the people inside).

More examples:

The school went to the zoo.

Here comes another beard.

The blue suit bowed and left the room.

The museum spoke of the past.

It's October now. Rummer's rose no more.

Словом, він був надзвичайно розумною талановитою людиною.

Його кров вас покарає.

Він мав свій куток, свій шматок хліба.

Уночі палало село.

Профспілки звикли до масовості, для них зайвий чоловік поряд – нормально!

Ø synecdoche

· In the expression 'All hands on deck!', the term 'hands' stands for 'mar­iners'.

· The term 'hand' has been chosen to represent the whole expression 'able-bodied seaman' [or in PC (politically correct) terms 'sea-person'] because that is the most important feature required for work on deck.

· In the expression 'United won the match', the term 'United' (in the case of Manchester United Football Club) might not appear to be the most important or essential item to represent the whole.

· However, Manchester has two football teams — the other being Manches­ter City Football Club. A supporter of MUFC would therefore be select­ing the one important linguistic feature which distinguished his team from the other football club.

· The parts of the name 'Manchester' and 'Football Club' would be im­plied by the speaker, and understood by the listener.

PERIPHRASIS

This variety of metonymy is the replacement of a direct name of a thing or phenomenon by the description of some quality of this thing or phenomenon.

Assigned features. Periphrasis intensifies a certain feature of the ob­ject described. It stands close to metonymy because it is one more way to rename objects.

Classification. There are such types of periphrasis as logical and figu­rative. Logical periphrasis is based upon one of the inherent properties of the object:

weapons = instruments of destruction;

love = the most pardonable of human weaknesses;

Київ = місто каштанів;

будинок = затишок від вітру та опадів

буде погода, як не потече з неба вода, (дощ)

Figurative periphrasis is based upon metaphor or metonymy:

to marry = to tie the knot (metaphor); enthusiast = young blood (me­tonymy); money = root of evil (metaphor).

Communicative functions. Besides rendering stylistic information, periphrasis performs a cognitive function: it deepens our knowledge of the objective world.

More examples:

cotton = white gold = біле золото;

furs = soft gold = м'яке золото;

lawyer = a gentleman of the long robe = людина у мантії;

women = the better (fair) sex = краща (прекрасна) стать;

medical men = people in white gowns = люди у білих халатах;

ordinary person = a man in the street = людина з вулиці;

wife = my better half = моя краща половина;

policeman = guardian of public order = охоронець правопорядку

oil = black gold = чорне золото;

"Жигулик", мабуть, аж тепер відчувши свої рани, заводитися не захотів, і Скляр потрюхикав до ринкової площі cnoco6oм Адама і Єви, тобто пішки.

EUPHEMISM

It is a word or word-combination which is used to replace an un pleasantly sounding word or word-combination.

Assigned features. Euphemism might be viewed as periphrasis: the) have the same mechanism of formation. Strictly speaking, euphemisms are not stylistic devices but expressive means of language: most of them are registered in dictionaries.

Classification. Euphemisms may be classified according to the spheres of their application and grouped the following way:

1. Religious euphemisms: devil = the dickens, the deuce, old Nick; God = Lord, Almighty, Heaven, goodness. Чорт = лукавий, нечистий, нечиста сила, нечистий дух, злий дух, лихий дух, дух тьми (пітьми), дух темноти, дух мли, лихий, чорний, чорна сила; той, що не проти ночі згадувати; Бог = Всевишній, всесильний, творець.

2. Moral euphemisms: to die – to be gone, to expire, to be no more, to depart, to decease, to go west, to join the majority, to pass away; dead = deceased, departed, late; a whore – a woman of a certain type; an obscenity = a four-letter word. Померти = упокоїтися, спочити, підійти (у кращий/потойбічний світ), преставитися, скінчитися, піти до праотців; мертвий – покійний, неживий, бездиханний; брехати = говорити неправду, вигадувати, видумувати, фантазувати, заговорюватися; красти = забирати лишки; брати те, що погано лежить; старий = людина похилого віку; проститутки = працівники сфери сексуального обслуговування; горілка – гірка, зілля, зелений змій, грішна вода, скляний бог, веселуха, живиця, сорокаградусна.

3. Medical euphemisms: lunatic asylum – mental hospital, mad­house; idiots = mentally abnormal, low, medium and high-grade menta defectives; cripple = invalid; insane = person of unsound mind. Божевільня/психіатрична лікарня = будинок для душевно хворих, жовтий дім; дурень = розумово відсталий, не сповна розуму, не ті вдома, клепки не вистачає; тяжко хворіти – дихати на ладан.

4. Political euphemisms: starvation = undernourishment; revolt, revolution = tension; poor people = less fortunate elements; absence of wages and salaries = delay in payment; profit = savings. Страйк = демонстрація протесту; жебрак = прохач; вигнати – вказати на двері, попросити, спровадити, вирядити; безплатно = за спасибі; бідність – нестаток, скрута.

Communicative function. Euphemisms make speech more polite, cul­tured, delicate, acceptable in a certain situation.

Note. Euphemisms have their antipodes which might be called disphemisms.

Disphemisms are conspicuously rough, rude and impolite words and word-combinations. The speaker resorts to disphemisms to express his neg­ative emotions, such as irritation, spite, hate, scorn, mockery, animosity. Here are some of them:

to die – to kick the bucket;

to urinate = to piss;

a German soldier (W. W. II) = krauthead;

a Negro = kinky-head;

to treat someone badly, unfairly = to give someone the finger;

обличчя = морда, рило, пика, будка;

померти = одубіти, дуба врізати, здохнути; грубіян = хамло.

METAPHOR

Metaphor is the second figure of quality. Metaphor, like metonymy, is also the result of transference of the name of one object to another ob­ject. However, metaphoric transference is of different nature: it is based upon similarity of the objects (not contiguity).

Classification. The nature of metaphor is versatile, and metaphors may be classified according to a number of principles.

1. According to the pragmatic effect produced upon the addressee met­aphors are subdivided into trite (or dead) and genuine (or original). Dead metaphors are fixed in dictionaries. They often sound banal and hackneyed, like clichés:

to prick up one 's ears; the apple of one's eye; to burn with desire; seeds of evil! a flight of imagination; floods of tears; хмара запитань; потік емоцій/сліз; братися за розум; перемивати кісточки; загострювати увагу; лізти в голову; спадати на думку.

Original metaphors are not registered in dictionaries. They are creat­ed in speech by speakers' imagination. They sound fresh and expressive, unexpected and unpredictable:

Some books are to be tasted, others swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested.

We all want a little patching and repairing from time to time.

The wind was a torrent of darkness among the gusty trees.

Золото миcтецтва з переляком сплавити, добути з брехні – ненадійна алхімія.

Де котиться між: голубих лугів Хмарина ніжна з білими плечима, Я продаю сонця – оранжеві, тугі, з тривожними музичними очима.

Дим розгортає крила і пориває з собою вогонь. Се вже не діти в червоних спідничках. Се щось велике, завзяте, сердитий звір, що хоче скинуть з грудей вагу, що простягає спідсподу лапи з синіми жилами, душить й підгортає під себе. Роззявляє криваву пашу й жере – Рве зубом й лютує.

2. According to the degree of their stylistic potential metaphors are clas­sified into nomiflational, cognitive and imaginative (or figurative). Nominational metaphors do not render any stylistic information. They are in­tended to name new objects or phenomena of the objective world. A nomina­tional metaphor is a purely technical device of nomination, when a new notion is named by means of the old vocabulary:

the arm of the chair, the foot of the hill, ніжка столу, крило будинку, лопатка, колінна чашечка, рукав річки, гребінь хвилі, глава книги, двірники автомобіля.

Nominational metaphor is a source of lexical homonymy. When an object obtains a quality which is typical of another object, cog­nitive metaphor is formed:

One more day has died.

A witty idea has come to me.

The road lead Jack there.

The sight took John's attention.

The shore was drowning in the fog.

Лукаса переслідувало відчуття, ніби за ним стежать.

Навчання посувалося поволі, але все ж посувалося. Час ішов. сонце вставало і знову сідало на горизонті.

Being a source of lexical polysemy, cognitive metaphors do not possess great stylistic value.

The most expressive kind of metaphor is imaginative metaphor. Imag­inative metaphors are occasional and individual. They are bright, image-bear­ing, picturesque and poetic:

Patricia's eyes were pools of still water.

Time was bleeding away.

If there is enough rain, the land will shout with grass.

Отруйні води ненависті клекотали довкола Кетлін, здіймалися вище й вище, підступали до грудей, до шиї, хапали в свої мертві стиски, не давали дихати, не давали жити.

Чорне озеро ярмаркувливається струмком в каплицю; одні йдуть, другі виходять.

У розлогому полумиску долини, що по самі вінця затекла сонцем, колобродиться. вирує ярмарок.

3. Metaphors may be also classified according to their structure (or ac­cording to complexity of image created). There are such metaphors as sim­ple (or elementary) and prolonged (or sustained). A simple metaphor con­sists of a single word or word-combination expressing indiscrete notion:

The leaves were falling sorrowfully.

A good book is the best of friends. The wind was a torrent of darkness. Час іде.

День тягнеться довго. Небо насупилось хмарами.

A sustained metaphor appears in cases when a word which has been used metaphorically makes other words of the sentence or paragraph also realize their metaphoric meanings:

The average New Yorker is caught in a Machine. He whirls along, he is dizzy, he is helpless. If he resists, the Machine will mangle him. If he does not resist, it will daze him first with its glittering reiterations, so that when the mangling comes he is past knowing. Ми нахилили наші обличчя над урвищем вниз, і коли очі наші добігли, минаючи хаос поламаних скель та диких рослин, дч берега моря, ми уздріли, як воно тріпалось тихо в сітці яскравих бліків, наче зловлене в невід з синіх, зелених і рожевих мотузок, а крізь ту сітку на нас дивилась мозаїка дна: фіолетові плями густих водоростей, блакитні очі підводних пісків, стара бронза і темно-синя емаль, що зливались в один вогняний сплав. Заворушились кляті питання, кляті думки і болі; вони звідусіль лізли в голову, справляли там і похорони, і поминки. І вже очей і серця не тішив ні дитячий шепіт колосу, ні тихий зоряний пил. ні місячне марево.

In fact, a sustained metaphor is a sequence of simple metaphors, most оf which are cognitive. This chain of simple metaphors unfolds the meaning of the first, initial metaphor.

Communicative functions. Metaphor is one of the most powerful means of creating images. Its main function is aesthetic. Its natural sphere of usage is poetry and elevated prose.

Additional features. Canonized metaphors tend to become symbols. A symbol is an object which stands for something else. It is a reference in speech or in writing which is made to stand for ideas, feelings, events, or conditions. A symbol is usually something tangible or concrete which evokes something abstract. The following are standard symbols in the context of English and Ukrainian cultures:

the rose often stands for love, the dove stands for peace, the cross stands for Christianity, the red colour stands for passion, the ace of spades stands for death.

Ø metaphors

· It's useful to see the concept of metaphor as part of a scale which runs from the literal to the non-literal use of language.

· A literal statement is one which refers to the actual material world in plain terms. For instance — 'This table is made of wood'.

· At the other extreme, and in the words of a popular song, we find the statement:

'The sun is a big yellow duster, polishing the blue, blue sky'.

· This makes a much bigger demand on our imagination and on our willing­ness to step outside the rational, literal world.

· This metaphor can be analysed as follows. The sun is being compared to a duster. This idea is interesting because dusters are often yellow like the sun. Further, just as the sun appears to move in the sky, removing grey clouds, a duster moves to polish a surface and clear it of dust. In the con­text of a pop song, the idea is witty and entertaining in a lighthearted way.

· Contrast this more serious metaphor:

Now does he feel

His filthy murders sticking on his hands

· This is from Macbeth. The image is extremely vivid as the murderer's sense of guilt is conveyed to the audience by combining the abstract guilt and the material sticky blood.

· Metaphor is extremely economic communication. Several layers of mean­ing can be conveyed at the same time.

· Advertisers make effective use of metaphor and other images because they have a restricted amount of space, and this space is very costly. A phrase such as 'the sunshine breakfast' is more effective than a state­ment which might read: 'Have our cereal for your breakfast and you'll enjoy it. It will give you energy and nutrition because the corn's been grown in a sunny climate.'

EPITHET

Epithets are such attributes which describe objects expressively.

Assigned features. It is essential to differentiate between logical at­tributes and epithets proper. Logical attributes are objective and non-evaluating:

a round table, green meadows, next day, second boy, loud voice, гipкий перець, сива бабуся, рожева тканина, кисле яблуко, свіжий хліб, золота обручка, чиста тарілка, глуха людина, липовий цвіт, холодна вода, легка валіза. They have nothing to do with stylistics.

Epithets proper are subjective and evaluating, mostly metaphorical These qualities make epithets expressive:

loud ocean, wild wind, glorious sight, irresistible charm, crazy behaviour.

Classification. Epithets may be classified on the basis of their semantic and structural properties. Semantically, epithets fall into two groups: epithets associated with the nouns modified and epithets not associated with the nouns modified. Associated epithets point out typical features of the objects which they describe. Such typical features are implied by the meaning of the nouns themselves:

if forest, then — dark;

if attention, then – careful;

if seas, then — salty;

if tears, then — bitter;

if sky, then – blue;

гіркi сльози, сива давнина, рожеві мрії, кисла фізіономія, свіжі ідеї, золоті руки, чиста правда, глуха стіна, липова довідка, холодна байдужість, легке серце.

Unassociated epithets ascribe such qualities to objects which are not inherent in them. As a result of this, metaphors emerge fresh, unexpected, original and expressive:

voiceless sands, helpless loneliness, thirsty deserts, blank face, murderous weather, гіркий сон, сивий біль, рожевий обман, кислі очі, свіжий ворог, золота посмішка, чиста тупість, глухий туман, липовий сміх, холодна перемога, легка клятва.

Unassociated epithets may be called "speech epithets" because they arc crated right in the process of communication.

Associated epithets are mostly language epithets. Their use with cer­tain nouns has become traditional and stable. Thus, they are language-as-a system elements.

As to their structural composition, epithets are divided into simple, com­pound, phrasal and clausal.

Simple epithets are ordinary adjectives: magnificent sight, tremendous pressure, overwhelming occupation, гробова тиша, голосистий дзвін, спрагле серце, масний погляд, солодкий час, гірка давнина, глухий кут.

Compound epithets are expressed by compound adjectives: mischief-making pupil, curly-headed boy, heart-burning desire, блакитнаво-срібний сон, щиросердне зізнання, хитромудрий начальник, легкокрила бричка, тупоголова / тонкосльоза людина.

Phrasal epithets are expressed by word-combinations of quotation type: do-it-yourself command, go-to-devil request, head-to-toe beauty, темно-сірі з грозою і цвітом очі, з переораним зморшками обличчям дід.

Clausal epithets are expressed by sentences: I-don't-want-to-do-it feeling. I-did-it-myself statement, чутка "одна баба сказала", підхід "моя хата з краю", посада "куди пошлють", робота "не бий лежачого", посмішка "рот до вух".

ANTONOMASIA

This variety of metaphor is based upon the principle of identifica­tion of human beings with things which surround them. People may be identified with other people, with animals, with inanimate objects and natural phenomena.

When the speaker resorts to antonomasia, he creates the so-called "talk­ing names" which aim at depicting certain traits of human character: moral and psychological features, peculiarities of behaviour, outlook, etc.:

John is a real Romeo.

The Snake entered the room (instead of Mary entered the room).

Yesterday Jack came across Miss Careless again.

Sam is the Napoleon of crime.

I haven't seen the Pimple of late.

Будь ти проклятий навіки, Чорте-зі-Свічечкою!

Кудипошлютъ сів на пароплав, поплив і приплив.

Після того Дев'ятий, глянувши в конспект, удався до інших прикладів.

Пане Забудько, ви знову залишили ключі вдома?

Ви ж просто Шаляпін, такий голос маєте!

Лазар ненавидів тюремного смотрителя, якому тюрма дала прізвище Морда.

PERSONIFICATION

When the speaker ascribes human behaviour, thoughts and ac­tions to inanimate objects, he resorts to the stylistic device of personifi­cation:

In the book Alfred found Love which was hiding herself between the pages.

Lie is a strange creature, and a very mean one.

The night was creeping towards the travelers.

Вітер утомився цілоденною борнею, ізнемігся, заблудився серед вулиць і в безладді тихо крутить пил і сміття і, плазуючи, питає, що ж робити?

На синіх долонях вечора темним смутком горбатився старий вітряк і в благанні простягав завмерлі руки чи то до неба, чи то до людей: звикнувши до праці, до гурту, він німотна карався без них, і тихі сльози скапували з його крил.

Соние стояло якесь безпомічне і нерішуче. Боялось навіть моргнути.

ALLEGORY

Factually, allegory is antonomasia. The only difference between them lies in their usage: the domain of allegory is not a sentence but the whole text (a logically completed narration of facts or events).

There are allegoric tales and fables, stories and novels. Completely alle­goric are such fables by I. Krylov as "Elephant and mongrel", "Donkey and nightingale", "Monkey and spectacles". Allegoric fables are not about elephants, dogs and donkeys. They are about people who behave like these animals:

He було порятунку ні від Бога, ні від чорта, ні від людей. Суддею був Ведмідь, Вовки були підсудки. Свиня з Мурахою сперечалися, хто з них двох багатший. А Віл був свідком правоти і побічнимсуддею, [...] "Не те ви лічили, пане Віл", – перебила його мову Мураха.

IRONY

This figure of quality is realized when the speaker intentionally breaks the principle of sincerity of speech. Ironically used words acquire meanings opposite to their primary language meanings:

ironical good means bad, enough means not enough, pleased means displeased, etc.

Assigned features. Though irony is a contextual stylistic device, there exist words and word-combinations which convey ironical meaning out of context:

too clever by half, a young hopeful, head cook and bottle washer, to orate, to oratorize.

In order to help the addressee decode irony the speaker often resorts to appropriate intonation and gestures.

Communicative function. Irony is generally used to convey a negative meaning or emotion: irritation, regret, dissatisfaction, disappointment, displeasure, etc.

More examples:

What a noble illustration of the tender laws of this.

Favoured country! – they let the paupers go to sleep!

Cutting off chickens' heeds! Such a fascinating process to watch.

It must be delightful to find oneself in a foreign country without a penny in one's pocket.

Thank you very much for trumping my ace!

Він такий розумний, що й "два плюс два" не второпає.

Аякже, рада вас бачити, тільки б ще три роки не приходили.

Схожа свиня на коня, тільки шерсть не така.

Боюсь, як торішнього снігу.

Гарне життя: як собаці на прив'язі.

Ø irony

· There are various types of irony. They have in common the adoption of a distance from the subject for satirical or critical effect.

· A speaker might take up an opponent's argument and then exaggerate it to reveal its weaknesses. This is Socratic irony.

· Writers or speakers might pretend to hold opinions which are the exact opposite of what they truly believe. [The reader or listener must be alert and skillful to avoid being drawn into a trap.]

· Dramatic irony occurs when the audience at a play know something of which the characters on stage are ignorant [the lover hidden in the next room].

· Irony is often classed as a form of humour, along with sarcasm and satire. These do not necessarily evoke laughter, but rather a wry shrug or assent to the idea that the received world picture has been disturbed.